Fundamental of AC

Generation of Alternating Voltages

and Currents
• Alternating voltage may be generated by
rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as shown
in Fig. 11.1(a) or by rotating a magnetic field
within a stationary coil, as shown in Fig. 11.1
(b).
• The value of the voltage generated depends,
in each case, upon the number of turns in
the coil,strength of the field and the speed
at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
• Alternating voltage maybe generated in
either of the two ways shown above, but
rotating-field method is the one which
ismostly used in practice.
Equations of the Alternating
Voltages and Currents
• https://javalab.org/en/ac_generator_en/
Fleming’s right hand rule
states to stretch the thumb,
forefinger and middle finger of
the right hand in such a way
that they are mutually
perpendicular to each other. If
the forefinger indicates the
direction of the external
magnetic field and thumb
shows direction of motion of
conductor, then the middle
finger will show the direction
of induced current in the
conductor and hence the
direction of induced emf.
 Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents
Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field, with an
angular velocity of w radian/second, as shown in Fig.11.2. Let time be measured from th
e X-axis. Maximum flux F is linked with the coil, when its plane coincides with the X
axis. In time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle q = wt. In this deflected
position, the component of the flux which is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, is F =
F cos wt. Hence, flux linkages of the coil at any time are N F = N F cos wt.

According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f. induced in the co

il is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil. Hence, the value of the
induced e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. whenq = wt) or the instantaneous value of the
induced e.m.f.

e = − dt (N F) volt = − N.dt (Fm cos wt)volt = −NF w (− sin wt) volt

= wN F sin wt volt = wN F sin q volt ...(i)
When the coil has turned through 90º i.e. when q
= 90º, then sin q = 1, hence e has maximum value,
say Em. Therefore, from Eq. (i) we get
Em = wN F = wN Bm A = 2 p f N Bm A volt ...(ii)
where
Bm = maximum flux density in Wb/m2 ; A = area of the coil in m2
f = frequency of rotation of the coil in rev/second
Substituting this value of Em in Eq. (i) we get
e = Em sinq = Em sin wt ...(iii)
Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current is i = Im sin wt provided the coil circuit
has been closed through a resistive loa d
Since w = 2pf, where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil, the above equations of the voltage
and current can be written as

e = Em sin 2 p f t = Em sin ( 2pt/T)

i = Im sin 2 p ft = Im sin (2pt/T), where T
is time period of wave
• It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time angle wt and when
e.m.f. is plotted against time, a curve similar to the one shown in Fig. 11.3 is obtained.
This curve is known as sine curve and the e.m.f. which varies in this manner is known
as sinusoidal e.m.f.
• Such a sine curve can be conveniently drawn, as shown in Fig. 11.4. A
• vector, equal in length to E is drawn. It rotates in the counter-clockwise direction with
a velocity of w radian/second, making one revolution while the generated e.m.f. makes
two loops or one cycle. The projection of this vector on Y-axis gives the instantaneous
value e of the induced e.m.f. i.e. Em sin wt
Fig. 11.4
Fig. 11.3
• Time Period
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its time period T. For example, a 50-Hz
alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.
• Frequency
The number of cycles/second is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz).it may be noted that
the frequency is given by the reciprocal of the time period of the alternating quantity.
f = 1/T or T = 1/f
Amplitude
The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity is known as its amplitude.
Phase
By phase of an alternating current is meant the fraction of the time period of that alternating current which has elapsed
since the current last passed through the zero position of reference. For example, the phase of current at point A is T/4
second, where T is time period or expressed in terms of angle, it is ᴨ/2 radians (Fig. 11.11). Similarly, the phase of the
rotating coil at the instantFig.
shown in Fig. 11.1 is wt which is, therefore, called its phase angle
11.11

Fig. 11.12
• Phase Difference
Now, consider three similar single-turn coils displaced from each other by angles a and b and rotating in a
uniform magnetic field with the same angular velocity [Fig. 11.13 (a)].
In this case, the value of induced e.m.fs. in the three coils are the same, but there is one important
difference. The e.m.fs. in these coils do not reach their maximum or zero values simultaneously but one
after another. The three sinusoidal waves are shown in Fig. 11.13 (b). It is seen that curves B and C are
displaced from curve A and angles b and (a + b) respectively. Hence, it means that phase difference
between A and B is b and between B and C is a but between A and C is (a + b). The statement, however,
does not give indication as to which e.m.f. reaches its maximum value first. This deficiency is supplied by
using the terms ‘lag’ or ‘lead’.
Fig. 11.13
A leading alternating quantity is one which reaches
its maximum (or zero) value earlier as compared to
the other quantity.
Similarly, a lagging alternating quantity is one
which reaches its maximum or zero value later than
the other quantity. For ex-ample, in Fig. 11.13 (b),
B lags behind A by b and C lags behind A by (α+β)
because they reach their maximum values later.
• The three equations for the instanta-neous induced e.m.fs. are
eA = Em sin wt ...reference quantity
eB = Em sin (wt − β)
eC = Em sin [wt − (α+β )]
In this figure φ is difference in angle between quantity A abd
Quantity B quantity B is leading A is it is know as phase difference
(φ)
Hence, their equations are
eA = Em sin wt ...reference quantity
eB = Em sin (wt −φ)
A plus (+) sign when used in connection with phase difference
denotes ‘lead’ whereas a minus (–) sign denotes ‘lag’.
 Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S.) Value
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time Fig. 11.15
produces the same heat as produced by the alter-nating current when
flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
• It is also known as the effective or virtual value of the alternating current,
the former term being used more extensively. For computing the r.m.s.
value of symmetrical sinusoidal alternating currents, either mid-ordinate
method or analytical method may be used, although for symmetrical but
non-sinusoidal waves, the mid-ordinate method would be found more
convenient.
• A simple experimental arrangement for measuring the equivalent d.c.
value of asinusoidal current is shown in Fig. 11.15
• The two circuits have identical resistances but one is connected to battery
and the other to a sinusoidal generator. Wattmeters are used to measure
heat power in each circuit.
• The voltage applied to each circuit is so adjusted thatheat power
production in each circuit is the same. In that case, the direct current will
equal Im/ 2 which is called r.m.s. value of the sinusoidal current.
 Mid-ordinate Method
• In Fig. 11.16 are shown the positive half cycles for both symmetrical sinusoidal
and non-sinusoi-dal alternating currents. Divide time base ‘t’ into n equal
intervals of time each of duration t/n seconds. Let the average values of
instantaneous currents during these intervals be respectively i , i ,i3 .... in (i.e.
mid-ordinates in Fig. 11.16).
• Suppose that this alternating current is passed through a circuit of resistance R
ohms. Then,
Fig. 11.16
• The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is of considerable importance in practice,
because the ammeters and voltmeters record the r.m.s. value of alternating
current and voltage respectively. Inelectrical engineering work, unless indicated
otherwise, the values of the given current and voltage are always the r.m.s.
values.

• It should be noted that the average heating effect produced during one cycle is = R
= (Im/ 2)^2 R = R
Analytical Method
 Average Value
) Mid-ordinate Method
• The average value I of an alternating current is
expressed by that steady current which transfers With reference to Fig. 11.16,
across any circuit the same charge as is
transferred by that alternating current during the
same time.
• In the case of a symmetrical alternating current This method may be used both fo
(i.e. one whose two half-cycles are exactly simi- r sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal w
lar, whether sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal), the aves, although it is specially
average value over a complete cycle is zero. convenient for the latter.
Hence, in their case, the average value is obtained Fig. 11.16,
by adding or integrating the instantaneous values
of current over one half-cycle only. But in the
case of an unsymmetrical alternating current (like
half-wave rectified current) the average value
must always be taken over the whole cycle
Analytical Method FOR aVERAGE
VALUE