Dr.K.V.S.R.I.

T ENGG COLLEGE
WORKSHOP LAB MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
For All Branches
YEAR: B.Tech I/II (R15)

Prepared by

M.NAGAKIRAN, M.Tech

Assistant Professor

Dr.K.V.S.R.I.T

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
A. CARPENTRY
1. INTOUCTION
2. PREPARATION OF DOVETAIL JOINT
3. MORTISE AND TENON JOINT
4. PRACTICE FIGURES
B. FITTING
1. INTROUCTION
2. SQUARE FITTING JOINT
3. V- FITTING JOINT
4. PRACTICE FIGURES
C. SHEET METAL (any two exercises)
1. INTROUCTION
2. PREPARATION OF A RECTANGULAR OPEN TYPE TRAY
3. PREPARATION OF HOLLOW CYLINDER
4. PREPARATION OF FUNNEL
D. HOUSE WIRING
1. INTROUCTION
2. TWO LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY ON SWITCH IN SERIES
3. ONE LIGHT CONTROLLED BY 2 TWO – WAY SWITCHES
4. PRACTICE FIGURES
E. FOUNARY
1. INTROUCTION
2. PREPERATION OF GREEN SAND MOULD USING SINGLE PIECE PATTERN
3. PREPERATION OF GREEN SAND MOULD FOR DOUBLE PIECE PATTERN

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F.WELDING
1. INTROUCTION
2. LAP JOINT
3. T JOINT
4. PRACTICE MODELS
Demonstration on plumbing, machine shop, metal cutting, charts, Layouts, figures,
Circuits, hand tools, hand machines, models of jobs, material with names such as
different woods, woo faults, plastic, steels, meters, gauges, first aid, shop safety etc.

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 INTRODUCTION
It is the art and science of manufacturing items out of wood with the help of tools is known as carpentry.

Tools used in carpentry are classified as:

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1. Marking and measuring tools: These tools are used for measuring, then marking the required
dimensions on the work. Some of these tools are rules, try square, straight edge, mitre square,
scriber, marking gauge, mortise gauge, divider, calipers, leveler etc.

2. Cutting tools: These tools are used for cutting excess of material to obtain desired shape and
accuracy. Some of these tools are rip saw, cross cut saw, tenon saw, firmer chisel, parting chisel,
mortise chisel, etc.

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3. Planning tools: These are hand tools used for smoothing the wood surfaces and for finishing,
some of planning tool are Jack plane, trying plane, smoothing plane etc.

4. Boring tools: These tools are used for making holes on the wooden work piece. Tools like
Bradawl, gimlet, brace, and bit are used for this purpose...

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 5. Striking tools: Various wood working tools like chisels and nails need striking from the top to
drive them into the wood, they are called striking tools such as Hammers, mallet.

6. Holding tools: These are used for holding work rigidly during operations. Some of holding tools
are work bench, carpentry vice, G- cramp etc.

7. Miscellaneous tools: Rasp and file, pincer, screw driver etc are some of the miscellaneous tools.

Safety Precautions:

1. Wear appropriate safety shoe, apron and other necessary items for body protection.
2. Be careful when using the thumb as a guide in cross cutting and ripping.
3. Test the sharpness of edge cutting tools on wood, not on the hand.
4. The chisel is the hand tool which causes most injuries in wood working. Use it carefully.

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DOVETAIL JOINT

8
 PREPARATION OF DOVETAIL JOINT
Aim: To prepare the dovetail joint from the given wooden work for the required dimensions.

Material supplied: Wooden Piece

Tools required: Steel Rule, marking gauge, carpentry vice, jack plane, rip saw, try square, firmer chisel,
wooden mallet, rasp file

Operations performed:
 Measuring
 Planning
 Marking
 Sawing
 Chiseling
 Finishing
 Joining

Procedure:
1. Measure dimensions of given wooden work piece and clamp the work piece on the vice then
reduce the length for the required measure using rip saw.
2. Plane the surfaces of the work using jack plane and check the surface flatness using try square.
3. Unclamp the wood from the vice and mark the given dimensions on the work piece.
4. Clamp the work to the vice and cut the edges to the required depth using rip saw.
5. Chip out unwanted wood using firmer chisel and finish it by using rasp.
6. Repeat the above steps for another piece and check the fitness of the joint.

Precautions:

1. Job is clamped properly.

2. Pressure is applied on the plane only during forward stroke.

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 3. Concentration is on the cutting edge of chisel but not on the handle during chiseling

Result: Thus the dovetail joint is obtained as per the given dimensions.

MORTISE AND TENON JOINT

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 All dimensions are in mm

MORTISE AND TENON JOINT

Aim: To prepare the mortise and tenon joint from the given wooden work for the required dimensions.

Material supplied: Wooden Piece

Tools required: Steel Rule, marking gauge, carpentry vice, jack plane, rip saw, try square, firmer chisel,
wooden mallet, rasp file

Operations performed:
 Measuring
 Planning
 Marking
 Sawing
 Chiseling
 Finishing
 Joining

Procedure:
1. Measure the dimensions of a given wooden work piece and clamp the work piece on the vice then
reduce the length for the required measure using rip saw to make mortise
2. Plane the surfaces of the work using jack plane and check the surface flatness using try square.

11
 3. Unclamp the wood from the vice and mark the given dimensions on the work piece.
4. Clamp the work to the vice and cut the edges to the required depth using rip saw.
5. Chip out unwanted wood using firmer chisel and finish it by using rasp.
6. Repeat the above steps to prepare tenon and check the fitness of the joint.

Precautions:

1. Job is clamped properly.

2. Pressure is applied on the plane only during forward stroke.
3. Concentration is on the cutting edge of chisel but not on the handle during chiseling

Result: Thus the mortise and tenon joint is obtained as per the given dimensions.

PRACTICE FIGURES

MDDILE LAP T JOINT

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CROSS LAP JOINT

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 INTRODUCTION
Fitting is the assembling the parts together and removing metals to secure the necessary fit.
Tools used in fitting are:
1. Holding tools: These are used for holding work rigidly during operations. Some of holding tools
are bench vice, C-clamp, V-Block with Clamp etc.

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2. Striking tools: Hammers are used as striking tools, to strike a job or a tool. They are made of
forged steel of various sizes and shapes to suit various purposes.

3. Cutting tools: These tools are used for cutting excess of material to obtain desired shape and
accuracy. Various cutting tools used in fitting are:
 Chisels: Cold chisels are important cutting tools used in fitting for cutting and chipping
away pieces of metal. They are made by forging of carbon steel. Some of the chisels used
are flat chisel, cross-cut chisel, half-round chisel etc.

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 Files: File is a cutting tool having number of cutting points and is directly moved by hand.
A file is a hardened piece of high grade steel with slanting rows of teeth. It is used to cut,
smooth or fit metal parts. Files like flat file, hand file, square file, round file, triangular

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 Scrapers: Scraper is a tool by means of which very small amount of metal can be removed.
It is employed for obtaining a fine surface finish on the work. Types of scrapers are flat
scraper, triangular scraper and half-round scraper.

 Hack saw: Hack saw is the chief tool used in fitting for cutting rods, bars and pipes into
desired lengths.

 Drill bits: Drill bit is a tool used for making hole in a metal. It consists of two cutting
edges, set at an angle with the axis. Types of drill bits are flat drill, straight fluted drill and
twist drill.

 Reamer: It is a tool used get accurate hole after drilling. Hand reamer and machine reamer
are types used.

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  Taps: These are the tools used for cutting internal treads of a cylindrical hole or for
cleaning damaged threads. The upper part of a tap consists of a shank ending in a square
for holding the tap by a tap wrench.

 Dies and die stock: Tool used for cutting external threads on bars or tubes are called die
and tool used for holding to turn the threading die is called die stock.

4. Marking tools: These are the tools used to mark the required dimension on the job, surface plate,
v-block, try square, scriber, punches etc are used for this purpose.

5. Checking and measuring tools: These are used for inspecting and measuring the dimensions of
the components during manufacture to have accurate size and shape. Such as steel rule, calipers,
dividers, radius gauge, screw pitch gauge etc. are used.

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6. Miscellaneous tools: Miscellaneous tools like Screw driver, spanner, thread cleaner, pliers etc.
are used.

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Safety Precautions:

1. The job should be held tightly in the vice, during various fitting operations.
2. Wear safety goggles or protective shield, when chipping.
3. Chipping should be done towards the fixed jaw of the vice.
4. Use a file with a properly fitted tight handle.
5. Apply force only on the forward stroke; relive the force on the return stroke.
6. Does not use file as hammer. Examine the hammer each time before it is used.
7. Cut a small groove with a file in sharp corners, where a saw cut is to be started

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SQUARE FILING

All dimensions are in mm

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 SQUARE FILING

AIM: To file the given M.S piece in to square shape of 48 mm side

TOOLS REQUIRED: Bench vice, steel rule, try square, ball-peen hammer, scriber,
dot punch an rough and smooth flat files with safe edges.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATION:

1. The dimensions of the given piece are check with the steel rule
2. The job is fixed rigidly in a bench vice and the two adjacent sides are filled, using
the rough flat file first and then the smooth file such that, the two sides are at right
angle.
3. The flatness of the two adjacent sides is checked with the try-square.
4. Chalk is then applied on the surface of the work piece.
5. The given dimensions are marked by scribing two lines, with reference to the above
two datum sides.
6. Using the dot punch dots are punched along the above scribe lines.
7. The two sides are then file, by fitting the job in the bench vice; followed by
checking the flatness of the surfaces.

NOTE: As the material removal through filing is relatively less, filing one instead of
sawing, followed by sawing.

RESULT: A square piece of 48 mm side is thus obtained by filing, as discussed above.

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23
 V-FITTING

Aim: Assembling of two pieces with fitting operations.

Material supplied: Mild steel plate of 50X50X5 mm – 2 No

Tools required: Bench vice, surface plate, steel rule, try square, scriber, flat file, cold
chisel, hacksaw, dot punch, Anvil.

Operations performed:

 Measuring
 Marking
 Punching
 Cutting
 Filing
Procedure:

1. Measure the dimensions of a given work piece and Clamp the work piece in the
bench vice.
2. Filing the work piece to size by using flat file, try square.
3. Mark the required dimensions on the work piece by using scriber, steel rule.
4. Mark dot punches along the marked lines by using anvil, ball peen hammer, and dot
punch.
5. Cutting the work piece according to dot punches with hacksaw.
6. Remove the unwanted portion & filing the ends.
7. Assembling the two pieces
Precautions:
1. Surface plate is checked for cleanliness.
2. Ensure that hack saw blade is properly fitted in the frame.
Result:
Thus the assembling of two pieces with fitting operations is obtained.

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PRACTICE FIGURES

HALF ROUN JOINT

DOVETAIL JOINT

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 INTRODUCTION
Sheet metal work is working on the metal of 16 gauges to 30 gauges, with hand tool and simple
machines into different forms by cutting, forming into shape and joining

Sheet metal work is one of the major applications in engineering industry .It has its own
significance as useful trade in engineering work
APPLICATION OF SHEET METAL:

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Sheet metal work is used for making hoppers, funnels, various ducts, chimneys, ventilating pipe,
boiler etc.

It is also extensively used in major industries like air craft manufacturing, ship
building, automobile body building and fabrication of ducts in air conditioning equipments etc.

TOOLS USED IN SHEET METAL WORK:

1. Cutting tools:
a) Chisels
Chisels are used in sheet metal work for sheets, rivets, and bolt and chipping operations.
Though there are many types of chisels available round nose chisel and flat chisel are
mostly used for sheet metal work

b) Snips
Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200 mm to 600 mm. 200mm and 250 mm
length is most commonly used. In sheet metal work straight and curved snips are mostly
used. Straight snips are used for cutting along out side curves and straight lines
Curved or bent snips are used for trimming along onside curves

2. Striking tools:
a) Hammers
Hammers are used in sheet metal for hollowing, stretching, leveling, riveting etc
The following hammers are mostly used in sheet metal work
(i) Ball peen hammer
(ii) Straight peen hammer
(iii) Riveting hammer
(iv) Mallet

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 b) Punches: in sheet metal work punch is used for marking out work locating centre etc. dot
punch and centre punch are the types of punches

3. Supporting tools:
Stakes; stakes are nothing but sheet metal workers anvils and used for bending, hemming,
seaming, forming etc using hammers or mallets

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Bending tools:

Pliers are mainly used fir bending the sheet metal to the required shape. It is also used for
holding and cutting the sheet metal

4. Layout tools:
a) The steel rule used for measuring and laying out small work

b) Scriber is a long wire of steel where its one end sharply pointed and hardened to scratch
line on sheet metal for laying out patterns

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c) Dividers are used for drawing circles or arcs on sheet metal.

d) Trammels are used for drawing circles or arcs on sheet metal. Maximum size of the arcs
that can be scribed depends on the length of the beam of scriber

e) Sheet metal gauge: it is used to find the thickness of the sheet metal

f) Protractor used for drawing angle lines on the sheet metal.

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Safety precautions for sheet metal work:

1. Heavy sheets must be handled by using gloves

2. Check whether the head portion of the mallet and hammer should be tightly fixed to the
handle.
3. Respective snips should be selected according to the sheet metal thickness
4. While cutting operation, blade should be perpendicular to the job and along the marking
line
5. Adequate care should be taken while folding, hemming, seaming operations
6. Waste materials should be cleaned by using wire brush
7. High force should not be applied while leveling the sheet because that leads to malleability
state of sheet metal

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All dimensions are in mm

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 PREPARATION OF A RECTANGULAR OPEN TYPE TRAY

Aim: To prepare a rectangular open type tray from given sheet

Tools: Steel rule, scriber, straight snip, stake, wooden mallet.

Material supplied: G.I. Sheet

Sequence of Operations:

1. Checking
2. Marking
3. Cutting
4. Folding

Procedure:

1. The given sheet is checked for its dimensions using a steel rule.
2. The sheet is leveled using mallet
3. The dimensions are marked on the sheet by using scriber
4. The sheet is cut as per the marked dimensions by using straight snip.
5. Then a single hemming is made on the four sides of the tray as shown in figure.
6. This four sides of the tray are bent to 900 using stakes and anvil
7. Finally all the corners of the tray are joined by riveting.

Precautions:

1. Care is to be taken in avoiding wastage of sheet metal

2. Proper pressure is to be applied with mallet.
1. Properly bend the sheet.

Result: Thus the rectangular open type tray made from the given G.I. Sheet

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34
 PREPARATION OF HOLLOW CYLINDER

Aim: To prepare a hollow cylinder from given sheet

Tools: Steel rule, scriber, straight snip, stake, wooden mallet.

Material supplied: G.I. Sheet of 200X112 mm

Sequence of Operations:

1. Checking
2. Marking
3. Cutting
4. Folding

Procedure:

1. Cutting the required sheet from the stock with the help of snips
2. Marking the development of cylinder on the sheet by using scriber
3. The allowance for folding and bending is provided
4. Using straight snips to cut the straight edges and remove unwanted portion
5. The hemming is done using mallet and it is joined.

Precautions:

2. Care is to be taken in avoiding wastage of sheet metal

3. Proper pressure is to be applied with mallet.

Result: Thus the cylinder made from the given G.I. Sheet

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All dimensions are in mm

36
 PREPARATION OF FUNNEL

Aim: To prepare a Funnel from given sheet

Tools: Steel rule, scriber, straight snip, stake, wooden mallet.

Material supplied: G.I. Sheet

Sequence of Operations:

1. Checking
2. Marking
3. Cutting
4. Folding
5. Joining

Procedure:

a) Top conical part

1. The given sheet is checked for its dimensions using a steel rule.
2. The sheet is leveled using mallet
3. The dimensions are marked on the sheet by using scriber
4. The sheet is cut as per the marked dimensions by using suitable snip.
5. Forming the sheet into designed conical shape by using suitable stakes and mallet.
b) Bottom conical part: similarly follow the same above procedure for preparing
bottom conical part.
Assemble both the Top & Bottom conical part to obtain the funnel

Precautions:

1. Care is to be taken in avoiding wastage of sheet metal

2. Snips are properly used for cutting
3. Bending is doing carefully with the help of stake.

Result: Thus the Funnel is made from the given G.I. Sheet.

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 INTROUCTION

Power is supplied to the domestic installations through, the phase and a

neutral, forming a single phase A.C. 230V, two wire system. For industrial
establishments, power is supplied through three-phase four-wire system to give

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440V. Figure shows the power tapping for domestic and industrial purposes.
The neutral is earthed at the sub-station of the supply. As a safe practice all
single-phase devices such as switches, fuses etc., are connected to the live
conductor. All electrical conductors and cables are colored coded and must be
correctly connected up. Electrical wiring is defined as a system of electrical
conductors, components and apparatus for conveying electrical power from the
source to the point of use. The wiring system must be designed to provide a
constant voltage to the load.
Elements of House wiring:

1. Fuses and circuit breakers

2. Electrical switch

3. Plug

4. Socket outlet

5. Lamp holder

6. Ceiling Rose

7. Main switch

8. Incandescent light

Wires and wire sizes:

A wire is defined as a bare or insulated conductor consisting of one or several strands.

An insulated wire consists of a conductor (Silver/Copper/Aluminium) with insulating
material made of vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) or Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC). Wire
sizes are specified by the diameter of the wire, using a standard wire gauge (SWG), which
also gives an idea of the current carrying capacity. The specification consists of both the
number of strands and diameter of each wire in it. For Example, the specification 3/18
PVC consists of 3 strands of 18 gauge each.

Various systems of wiring:

1. Cleat wiring

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2. C.T.S. / T.R.S.Wiring (Cap tyer sheathed/ Tough rubber sheathed wiring)

3. Wooden casing & capping wiring

4. Lead sheathed wiring

5. Conduit wiring

6. PVC casing & capping

Wiring methods:

1. Series circuit 2. Parallel circuit

Fundamentals of Electricity:

Electricity: Electricity is a form of energy, which cannot be seen. But can be felt and
effects like magnetic effect, heating effect and Chemical effect.

Voltage: It is a pressure which makes the electricity to flow. The unit of measure is
Volt. The symbol used is ‘V’. The instrument used to measure is Voltmeter.

40
 Current:
The free flow of electrons is called as current. The unit to measure current is ‘Ampere’.
The symbol is ‘A’. The instrument used to measure the current is Ammeter.
Resistance:
It is opposition to current. The unit of resistance is ‘Ohm’. The symbol of ohm is Ω.
The resistance is measured by Ohmmeter. Watt: It is the rate of doing work, when potential
difference across the current is of volt and current flowing is ampere per second. The
energy consumed is of Watt.
1000 Watts = 1 Unit
746 Watts = 1 H.P.
The following are the formulae for calculation.
Voltage V or E = W / I = ÖWR = IR
Current I = E / R = W / E = ÖW / R
Resistance R = E2 / W = E / I = W / I2

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 Wattage W = I2 R = EI = E2 / R
House Wiring Tools:
Combination Pliers: Used for holding, twisting or cutting of wires.
Side cutting Plier: Used for Cutting at narrow places or ordinary places for removing
insulation.
Round Nose Plier or Flat Nose Plier: Used for holding, twisting or joining the wire at
narrow places. Firmer
Chisel: Used for chipping, scrapping and grooving the wood.

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Cold chisel: Used for chipping, Boring and channeling in walls.

Tenon saw or back Saw: Used for cutting wooden boards, Block casting etc.

Hack saw: Used for cutting conduit GI pipes or mild steel.

Mallet: Used as a hammer and made of wood

Double Blade Electric knife: It has two blades, one for removing insulation of wires and
another for cleaning the wires

Soldering Iron: Used to solder small joint terminals

Poker: Used for making pilot holes for fixing wood screws.

Line Tester: Used for testing the current.

Royal Plug Tool: It is made of steel and is used for making holes in the stone wall or
concrete wall for fiber made Royal plugs.

Screw driver: Used for loosening, tightening and to keep the screws in position.

Ball Peen Hammer: Used for fitting nails in the walls or wooden boards.

Instructions:

1. When closing the electric switch, always grasp the switch by the insulated handle.

2. Do not run too many electrical items from one point.

43
3. Use fuses and circuit breakers of proper capacity, so as to interrupt the current before it
becomes dangerous. 4. Disconnect the units to be repaired free from power supply and
make sure that they might not be energized while the repair work continues

5. Do not pour water to put-off fires in electric wires and electric equipment. You will be
subjected to electric shock or you will be electrocuted. Use sand to put-off fires in electric
items.

6. Whenever there is power failure, put-off the power supply to all equipment, in order to
prevent spontaneous recovery.

7. Never remove a plug from an outlet by pulling cord. Always pull by holding the plug.

8. While testing always keep one hand in your packet. If the hands are in contact with a
circuit, current will flow across your body and is more dangerous.

9. Electricity has no respect for ignorance. Do not apply voltage or turn-on any device
until it has been properly checked. Check earth connection before switching on portable
equipment.

Safety Precautions:

1. First we should be insulated

2. Care should be taken while fixing the fuse

3. All the switches should be off before power supply.

4. When power is on, the terminal wires should not be touched

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45
 TWO LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH IN SERIES

AIM: To give connection to two lights controlled by one switch in series

Tools Require: Wooden wiring board, one way switch, wooden round blocks, batten
lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips, nails, wooden screws, poker and
bulbs

Sequence of Operation:

1. The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board
2. Clips are nailed to the board, following the wire diagram.
3. Wires are stretched and clamped with the clips.
4. Round blocks (3 No’s.) are screwed on the board, as per the diagram.
5. Wires are connected on the holders and switch; which are then screwed onto the
round blocks.
6. Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
7. The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.

Result: The electric circuit, for two lights controlled by one switch in series is thus
made.

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47
 ONE LIGHT CONTROLLED BY 2 TWO-WAY SWITCHES

AIM: To give connection to two lights controlled by 2 two-way switches

Tools Require: Wooden wiring board, 2 two-way switches, wooden round blocks,
batten lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips, nails, wooden screws,
poker and bulbs

Sequence of Operation:

1. The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board
2. Clips are nailed to the board, following the wire diagram.
3. Wires are stretched and clamped with the clips.
4. Round blocks (3 No’s.) are screwed on the board, as per the diagram.
5. Wires are connected on the holders and switch; which are then screwed onto the
round blocks.
6. Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
7. The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.

Result: The electric circuit, for one light controlled by 2 two-way switches is thus
made.

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 PRACTICE FIGURE

WIRING FOR STARE CASE LAMP

49
 Introduction to Foundry
A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings from either ferrous or non-ferrous alloys.
Metals are turned into parts by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the
mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metal processed are

50
aluminum and cast iron. However, other metals, such as steel, magnesium, copper, tin, and zinc, are also
used to produce castings in foundries.

Process
In the casting process a pattern is made in the shape of the desired part. This pattern is made out
of wax, wood, plastic or metal. Simple designs can be made in a single piece or solid pattern. More
complex designs are made in two parts, called split patterns. A split pattern has a top or upper section,
called a cope, and a bottom or lower section called a drag. Both solid and split patterns can have cores
inserted to complete the final part shape. Where the cope and drag separates is called the parting line.
When making a pattern it is best to taper the edges so that the pattern can be removed without breaking
the mold. The patterns are then packed in sand with a binder, which helps to harden the sand into a semi-
permanent shape. Once the sand mold is cured, the pattern is removed leaving a hollow space in the sand
in the shape of the desired part. The pattern is intentionally made larger than the cast part to allow for
shrinkage during cooling. Sand cores can then be inserted in the mold to create holes and improve the
casting's net shape. Simple patterns are normally open on top and melted metal poured into them. Two
piece molds are clamped together and melted metal is then poured in to an opening, called a gate. If
necessary, vent holes will be created to allow hot gases to escape during the pour. The pouring
temperature of the metal should be a few hundred degrees higher than the melting point to assure good
fluidity, thereby avoiding prematurely cooling, which will cause voids and porosity. When the metal
cools, the sand mold is removed and the metal part is ready for secondary operations, such as machining
and plating.

Molding Material and Properties:

A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores.
They include molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The
choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are generally
required in molding materials are:

Permeability:

During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is
generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from
the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to
escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome
this problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the
gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.

Refractoriness:

It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so
that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

Green Strength:

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 The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles must
have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have
enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.

Dry Strength:

When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly
converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this
stage the molding sand must possess the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity
and at the same time it must be able to withstand the metallastatic pressure of the liquid material.

Hot Strength:

As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal
in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is
called hot strength.

Collapsibility:

The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified
casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings. Besides these
specific properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal
conductivity

Patterns:

Used to mold the sand mixture into the shape of the casting.

Patterns Materials:

Wood – for small production (white pine, mahogany, cherry etc.)

Metal – for high quality production:

Brass, Cast iron, Aluminum, Plastics

Advantage of metal or plastic pattern:

Do not absorb moisture, Strong and dimensionally stable, smooth surface finish.

Pattern material selection depends on:

The size and shape of the casting

The dimensional accuracy

52
 The quantity of castings required

The molding process to be used.

Strength and durability of the material selected for patterns must reflect the number of castings
that the mold will produce. Sometimes combination of materials is used to reduce wear in critical regions.
Patterns are usually coated with a partings agent to facilitate their removal from the molds.

Types of pattern

Solid or single piece pattern:

Generally used for simpler shapes and low quantity production. They are generally made of wood
and are inexpensive.

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 Split pattern: many patterns cannot be made of a single piece because of the difficulty in
molding. To eliminate the difficulty the patterns are made split, half rests in lower part and half in upper
part.

Gated patterns: in production work where many castings are required, patterns are made of
metal to give them strengths and to eliminate any warping tendency. The gates or runners for the molten
metal are formed by connecting parts between the individual patterns.

Loose piece pattern: consists of loose pieces, which are necessary to facilitate withdrawing it
from the mold.

Match plates: provide a substantial mounting for patterns. It consists of a flat metal or wooden
plate to which the patterns and gate are permanently fastened.

Sweep pattern: they are used where the shape to be molded can be formed by the rotation of a
curved line element about an axis:

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 Cores: Cores are utilized for castings with internal cavities or passages.

A core is a body, usually made of sand, used to produce a cavity in or on a casting.

Examples: forming the water jacket in water cooled engine block and forming the air space
between the cooling fins of an air cooled engine. Cores are placed in the mold cavity before casting to
form the interior surfaces of the casting.

Tools and equipments:

Miscellaneous Molding Tools:

Molding Board: It’s a wooden board with smooth surface, Its supports the flasks and pattern,
while the mold is being made

Shovel: It is used for mixing and tempering molding san and transferring the sand into flask. It is
made of broad steel blade with a wooden handle.

Riddles: A riddle is used to sift the sand as it is put into the flask around the pattern. I made
some using a piece of window screen nailed on a square frame. I also bought a kitchen floor sifter which
works the best.

Rammer: It is used for packing or ramming the sand around the pattern. One of its ends called
peen end, is wedge shaped and used for packing sand in spaces, pockets and corners, the early state of
ramming. The other end called the Butt End, has a flat surface and is used for compact the sand towards
the end of molding.

Strike Edge or Strike Off Bar: It is apiece or wood with straight edge. It is used to remove
excess sand from the mold after ramming, to provide a level surface.

Sprue Pin (Runner): It is a tapered wooden pin, used to make hole in the cope through which the
molten metal is poured into the mold.

Riser Pin: It is a straight wooden pin used to make a hole in the cope, over the mold cavity for
the molten metal to rise-in and feed the casting to compensate the shrinkage that may take place during
solidification.

Slick: It is a small double ended tool having a flat on one end and a spoon on the other. It is used
for mending and finishing small surfaces of the mold.

Shaping Tools and Gate Cutters: Various tools can be made to use when the sand has to be
shaped or cut from the flask such as when making gates and sprues. Old spoons bent to the desired shape
and sharpened work well. I have a set of kitchen measuring spoons that I use for a lot of cutting. Shapers
can also be made of old hacksaw blades. Grind off the teeth first.

Vent Rod: It is a thin rod used for making vents or holes in the sand mold to allow the escape of
mold gases generated during the poring of molten metal.

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Bellows: It is a hand tool, used to blow air, to remove loose sand particles from the mold cavity.

SAFEPRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not let the sand too wet. Water is an enemy of molten metals.
2. Never stand near or look over the mold during the pouring
3. While working the molten metal, wear protective clothing such as face shield or
safety goggles, leather gloves, which are tight at the wrist
4. Provide adequate ventilation to remove smoke and fumes.

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 PREPERATION OF GREEN SAND MOULD FOR DOUBLE PIECE PATTERN

AIM: To prepare a green sand mould for the split pin pattern as shown in figure.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Green molding sand, pattern, molding boxes, parting sand.

TOOLS REQUIRED: Rammers, slicks, strike of bar, riddle, shovel, riser, sprue pin etc.

DESCRIPTION: A mould can be described as a cavity created in compact sand mass which when filled
with molten metal will produce a casting. Obviously it is the impression left behind by a pattern after
with drawing the pattern. The cavity obtained will exactly resemble with the external shape and size of
pattern. The process of producing this cavity is called molding technique.

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PROCEDURE:

1. First of all a suitable flask is selected. Large enough to accommodate the pattern and also allow some
space around it for ramming.
2. Sprinkle the parting sand on the floor for easy removal after ramming. The drag part is placed upside
down on the floor.
3. The pattern which comes into the drag part, is placed such that parting surface matching with floor.
4. Molding sand is filled all along the pattern surface and fill up to the level flank rammed properly.
Hold the pattern and ram the sand around it. Again fill the sand up to the level of flask and ram it.
5. The excess sand is removed by using strike off bar.
6. A small amount of dry loose sand is sprinkled over the top surface and the drag is turned upside
down.
7. The cope portion pattern is assembled drag pattern with the help of dowel pins. Assemble the
cope flask.
8. Runners, riser is put in positions and supported vertically by taking small amount of molding sand
around them.
9. The sand is filled in the flask and rammed it. Excess sand is removed and vent hole are made,
parting sand is sprinkled around the top surface.
10. Then remove the cope and drag flask gently and carefully without spoiling the mould.
11. Remove the pattern from the flask by slightly shaking pattern in horizontal position along x and y
direction.

11. Repairs are then made in the cavity and gates are cut.
13. The cope and drag flasks are assembled together and mould is ready for pouring of molten metal.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Ramming to be done uniformly.

2. Molding flask (cope and drag) is to be assembled with guide pins.

RESULT:

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 PREPERATION OF GREEN SAND MOULD USING SINGLE PIECE PATTERN

AIM: Preparation of green sand mould for given single piece pattern.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Green molding sand, pattern, molding boxes.

TOOLS REQUIRED: Rammers, slicks, strike of bar, riddle, shovel, riser, sprue pin etc.

DESCRIPTION: A mould can be described as a cavity created in compact sand mass which when filled
with molten metal will produce a casting. Obviously it is the impression left behind by a pattern after
withdrawing the pattern. The cavity obtained will exactly resemble with the external shape and size of
pattern. The process of producing this cavity is called molding technique.

PROCEDURE:

1. First of all a suitable flask is selected. Large enough to accommodate the pattern and also allow some
space around it for ramming.
2. Sprinkle the parting sand on the floor for partly removal of pattern. The drag part is placed upside
down on the floor.

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3. The pattern is placed on the floor inside the flask centrally.
4. Molding sand is filled all along the pattern surface and fill up to the level flank rammed properly. Hold
the pattern and ram the sand around it. Again fill the sand up to the level of flask and ram it.
5. The excess sand is removed by using strike off bar.
6. A small amount of dry loose sand is sprinkled over the top surface and the drag is turned upside
down.
7. The cope is placed over the drag and parting sand is sprinkled on the top surface.
8. Runners, riser is put in positions and supported vertically by taking small amount of molding sand
around them.
9. The sand is filled in the flask and rammed it. Excess sand is removed and vent hole are made,
parting sand is sprinkled around the top surface.
10. Then remove the cope and drag flask gently and carefully without spoiling the mould.
11. Remove the pattern from the flask by slightly shaking pattern in horizontal position along x and y
direction.
12. Repairs are then made in the cavity and gates are cut.
13. The cope and drag flasks are assembled together and mould is ready for pouring of molten metal.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Ramming to be done uniformly.

2. Molding flask (cope and drag) is to be assembled with guide pins.

RESULT:

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 INTROUCTION

Welding is the process of joining similar metals by application of heat, with or without
application of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in

61
composition and characteristics of the metal joined. The various welding process are: 1)
Electric Arc welding 2) Gas welding 3) Thermit welding 4) Resistance welding 5) Friction
welding. However, only electric arc welding and Gas welding are discussed here. In either
process, the work pieces are melted along a common edge, to their melting point and then
a filler metal is introduced to form the joint on solidification. The materials to be welded
must be free from rust, scale, oil or other impurities, so as to obtain a sound weld.
Arc Welding:
In Arc welding, heat required for joining the metals is obtained from an electric arc.
Transformers or motor generator sets are used as arc welding machines. These Machines
supply high electric currents at low voltages and an electrode is used to produce necessary
arc. The electrode serves as the filler rod and the arc melts the surfaces so that, the metals
to be joined are actually fused together. Shows the principle of arc welding, using a
transformer. In addition to the welding machine, certain accessories are needed for
carrying out the welding work.
1) Welding Cables:
Two welding cables are required, one from the machine to the electrode and holder and
other, from the machine to the ground clamp. Flexible cables are usually preferred
because of the ease of usage and coiling the cables. Cables are specified by their current
carrying, capacity, say 300A, 400A etc.
2) Electrodes:
Filler rods used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of metallic wire
called core wire, having approximately the same composition as the metal to be welded.
These are coated uniformly with a protective coating called flux.
Electrode Holder:
The Electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and holds the electrode.
It should be light, strong and easy to handle and should not become hot while in operation.
Shows one type of electrode holder. The jaws of the holder are insulated, offering
protection from electric shock.
4) Ground Clamp:
It is connected to the end of the ground cable and is clamped to the work or welding
Table to complete the electric circuit. It should be strong and durable and give a low
resistance connection.
5) Chipping Hammer and Wire Brush:
A wire brush is used for cleaning and prepared the work for welding. A chipping hammer
is used for removing slag formation on welds. One end of the head is sharpened like a
chisel and the other, to be blunt, and round point.

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63
6) Face Shield:
A face shield is used to protect the eyes and face from the race of the arc and from spatter and flying
particles of hot metal. It is available either in hand or helmet type the hand type is convenient to use
where ever the work can be done with one hand. The helmet type is through not comfortable to wear,
leaves both hands free for the work. Shields are made of light weight non-reflecting fiber and fitted with
dark glass to filter out the harmful rays of the arc. A cover glass is fitted in front of the dark lens to
protect it from spatter.
7) Hand Gloves:
These are used to protect the hands from electrical shock and hot spatters.
Preparation of work
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign Material.
Thin pieces of metal are generally welded without believing the edges. However, thick work Pieces
should be beveled or veed out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of the weld. But, in
either case, the parts to be welded must be separated slightly to allow better penetration of the weld.
Welding Position
Depending on the position of the welding joint, appropriate position of the electrode and hand movement
are selected. Figure shows different welding positions.
Arc Welding Machines:
Both Direct current (DC) and alternate current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each having its
particular applications. DC welding supply is generally obtained from generators driven by electric
motors or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines.
Transformers are predominately used for almost all welding works. They have to step down the usual
supply voltage of 200V-400Volts to the open circuit voltage of 50-90 volts. A 100A to 200A small and
portable and available in single phase also. A 300A to 400A size is suitable for manual welding of
average work. Automatic welding requires 800A to 3000A.
The two popular manufacturers are
I) Indian Oxygen’s INDARC and
II) Advani Orlikon makes. The transformer may be air cooled or oil cooled with transformer oil.
Arc Welding Currents and Voltages
The range of currents and voltages applied are changed according to the electrode selected for the job.
The details are given in the table below.

Current (A) Voltage (V) Dia of Electrode (mm) Current (A)

Over 100 15 2 45
Over 100 to 250 20 2.5 70
Over 250 to 350 30 3.25 105
Over 350 to 500 35 4.0 140
Over 500 40 5.0 180
6.0 235
8.0 310

Table: Voltage used in Arc Welding Table: Welding currents for various electrodes

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65
Gas Welding:
Oxy acetylene flame is commonly used for gas welding. It consists of the supply of oxygen and acetylene
under pressure in cylinder and pressure regulators, a torch, hoses and accessories like goggles and a
lighter. The oxygen and acetylene cylinders are connected to the torch through pressure regulators and
hoses. The regulator consists of two pressure gauges, one for indicating the pressure indicating the
cylinder and other shows the pressure of the gas fed in to the torch, which may be regulated. The torch
mixes the two gases and the flame may be controlled by adjusting the oxygen and acetylene supply.
Note: Oxygen regulators have “Right hand” threads with plain nuts and acetylene regulators have
“Left hand” threads with notched hexagon nuts. So that they can’t be confused. The regulator is closed by
unscrewing the regulating screw.
Goggles with colored glasses are used to protect the eyes from glare and flying bits of hot metal. A
Welding table with a top of fire bricks is recommended for acetylene welding.
Types of Flames
The correct adjustment of flame is important for efficient welding. When oxygen and acetylene are
supplied to the torch nearly in equal volumes, a neutral flame is produced having a maximum
temperature of 32000 C. The neutral flame is widely used for welding steel, cast iron, copper, aluminum
etc. Carburizing flame is produced with an excess of acetylene, is needed for welding led, Oxidizing
flame with excess of oxygen is used for welding brass. Depending on the thickness of the job, different
torch nozzle sizes are used. The pressure of the gases and the flame size vary depending on the size of the
nozzle tip.
Safe and Correct Practices:
1) Arc welding:
1) Never look at the arc with naked eye. The arc can burn your eyes severely.
Always use a shield while welding.
2) Always use gloves, apron and leather shoes.
3) Ensure proper insulation of cable and check for openings.
4) Apply eye drops after arc welding is over for the day to relive strain on the eyes.
2) Gas Welding:
1) Always wear welding goggles while doing gas welding.
2) Never play or get careless when using the gas welding equipment. Combustible Gas must be Handling
carefully.
3) Always use spark lighter to light the torch, never use match.
4) Strictly follow the instructions and procedures laid-out in handling the Cylinders, regulators and
Torches.
SAFE PRACTICES
1. Always weld in a well ventilated place.
2. Do Not Weld Around Inflammable Materials
3. “Heat-don’t touch”
4. Never weld containers, which have been used for storing gasoline.

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67
 LAP JOINT
AIM: -To prepare a lap joint for a given material.

APPARATUS:- Rough file, Arc welding machine, Electrode and electrode holder, Gloves, face shield, chipping
hammer, ground clamp, tongs, wire brush.

Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode
and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC)
current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected by some type of
shielding gas, vapor, and/or slag.

THEORY:

Arc welding is fusion welding process. Arc welding is a process of joining two metallic pieces by the application of
heat is obtained from the electric arc between two electrodes.

In this process two metallic pieces will act as base metal or parent metal and electrode will act as filler metal. The
electrode is coated with flux which prevents oxidation of parent metals.

PROCEDURE:-

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ADVANTAGES:-
1. It is easy for welding.

2. Edge preparation differs upon preference.

3. It doest require skilled operator.

4. Its Economical & less power consume.

DISADVANTAGES:-
1. It requires edge preparation.

2. Its compulsory investigate joint.

3. It’s difficult to maintain the root strength.

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Check the welding M/C to make sure that is properly grounded & that all the leads are properly
insulated.

2. Never look at the arc with naked eyes.

3. Prevent welding cables contact with the hot metal.

4. Always wear safety hand gloves & leather shoes.

5. Apply eye drops after welding to relieve the strain on the eyes.

RESULT:-

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 T JOINT

AIM: -To prepare a single T joint for a given material.

Apparatus:- Rough file, Arc welding machine, Electrodes, Gloves, Hand or welding shield, chipping hammer &
tongs, wire brush.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Prepare the square edges as per given dimension.
2. Edge preparation should be 600 inclined

3. Place both pieces such that both should be parallel.

4. The electrode is fitted in a electrode holder and set the proper current value.

5. Using the hand shield, the arc is started by maintaining the gap of 2mm between electrode and
work piece.

6. Select the electrode of 3.15mm(10swg)

7. Switch on the machine.

8. Select 120 to 150 Amps.

9. Starts welding left to right or right to left at the end of joint suddenly take out.

10. Allow it to cool by using tongs.

11. Remove the slag by using chipping hammer.

12. Clean the weld using wire brush.

13. Check the dimension.

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ADVANTAGES:-
1. It is easy for welding.

2. Edge preparation differs upon preference.

3. It doest require skilled operator.

4. Its Economical & less power consume.

DISADVANTAGES:-
1. It requires edge preparation.

2. Its compulsory investigate joint.

3. It’s difficult to maintain the root strength.

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Check the welding M/C to make sure that is properly grounded & that all the leads are properly
insulated.

71
 2. Never look at the arc with naked eyes.

3. Prevent welding cables contact with the hot metal.

4. Always wear safety hand gloves & leather shoes.

5. Apply eye drops after welding to relieve the strain on the eyes.

RESULT:-

PRACTICE MODELS

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