'

Open Basic Education Programme

Bharatiya Jnana Parampara

Vijnana (C146)
Level C (Equivalent to Class 8)

' NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

~ (An autonomous oiganisation unde:1; Ministry of Education. of India)
ft}J A-24-25, Inst~tutionaL~rea,_Sector-62, NOIDA-201309 (U.P.)
, ",.,, , •• ,...., 1 Website: www.mos.ac.m, Toll Free No: 18001809393
 ADVISORY COMMTITEE
Prof. Chandra Bhushan Sharma Dr.RajivKumar Singh
Chairman Director (Academic)
National Institute of Open Schooling National Institute of Open Schooling
NOIDA(UP) NOIDA(UP)

CURRICULUM COMMITTEE
CHAIRPERSON
Dr. H. R. Nagendra
Vice-Chancellor
Swami Vivekanand Yoganusandhanam Sansthanam, Bengaluru, Kamataka

Swami Ramdev Ji SwamiAtmpriyanand Ji Dr. Ram Chandra Bhat

Founder Pro Vice- Chancellor Founder
Patanjali Yog Peeth Ramkrishna Mission Ved Vijnana Gurukulam
Kankhal, Haridwru; Vivekanand Vishwavidyalaya Chhannenhalli, Bengaluru,
Uttarakhand Bellur Math, Kolkata, West Bengal Kamataka

Shri Govind Dev Girl Ji Dr. Ravindra Mule Shri Mukul Kanitkar
Bharat Mata Mandir Vice President Akhil BhartiyaAyojak Sachiv
Haridwar, Uttarakhand Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Bhartiya Shikshan Mandal
Ved Vidya Pratisthan, Ujjain, M.P
Shri RaviTumuluri Dr. Ram Narayan Meena Sh. Vivek Singh
Joint Secretary Asst. Director (Academic) SEO (Academic)
Indian Yoga Association, NIOS, NOIDA (U.P) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P)
New Delhi

LESSON WRITERS
Smt. Aruna Saraswat Ms.Kavita'\adav
National Vice-president Research Scholar,
Bhartiya Shikshana Mandal Department of Chemistry
School of Physical Sciences
Jawahalal Nehru University
New Delhi

EDIDORS
Smt. Aruna Saraswat Dr. Ram Narayan Meena
National Vice-president Asst. Director (Academic)
Bhartiya Shikshana Mandal NIOS, NOIDA (U.P)

COURSE COORDINATORS
Dr. Ram Narayan Meena Sh.Vivek Singh
Asst. Director (Academic) SEO (Academic)
NIOS, NOIDA (U.P) NIOS, NOIDA (U.P)

DTP
Kuldeep Singh
Tri Nagru; Delhi-35
JI 'Wora 'Witn <You
Dear Learners,
The National Institute of Open Schooling is providing education at your doorstep throug
Open Basic Education (OBE) Programme. The OBE programme was initiated in June
1994 with the aim of providing the primary and upper primary education through altema
tive means of open schooling. It provides three tier education i.e. Level 'A' (equivalent t
class 3), Level 'B' (equivalent to class 5) and Level 'C' (equivalent to class 8). The Ope
Basic Education programme has been recognised by the Government of India as equiva
lent education to that of the formal school, for further education and employment.

The ancient education system of India was unique in nature and had peculiar characteris
tics and qualities which were not found in any civilisation of the world. The Indian trad·
tional knowledge consists ofAstronomy, Astrology, Acoustics, Arcitecture, Philosophy,
Medicine, Life sciences, Law, Poetics, Aesthetics, Agriculture and many more. The
gurukuls were the centre of knowledge where the pupils were living under the guidance o
the Guru. This knowledge system had relevance in the ancient Indian as well as in prese
society and now needs to be made accessible for the present generation.

NIOS has launched the new stream-'lndian KnowledgeTradition' courses for reviving the
Vedic Education, Sanskrit Language and literatureYoga and many other areas of ancient
Indian Knowledge. The aim of this stream is also to re-establish and to carry forward o
ancient education system throughout the country to preserve our rich tradition for com
ing generations.

In this book (Level C), matter; acid, alkali and salts; carbon and its compounds are give
energy its sources and changes is daily life are given light sounds, current, information an
communication technology & food production are given.

This book has 12 lessons which has been devided into three part-class VI, VII and VII
In every lesson there are "Intext Questions" given to help you to assess your own progres
as you go along. Every lesson, includes "'Irminal Questions" and "What have you learnt"
to help you revise the lesson easily and thoroughly

I am confident that you will find this book useful and interesting. I am also thankful to t
experts who have played an important role in making this material interesting and useful
I wish you a bright future.

I welcome the views of experts and readers for the improvement in the leaning materia

With best wishes.

Chairman
National Institute of Open Schooling
How to use the Study 9dateria{
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format supporting independent learning has been followed. If you follow the instructions given, then
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Title: will give a clear indication of the contents within. Do read it.
Introduction: This will introduce you to the lesson linking it to the previous one.
Objectives: These are statements that explain what you are expected to learn from the
lesson. The objectives will also help you to check what you have learnt after you have
gone through the lesson. Do read them.

Notes: Each page carries empty space in the side margins, for you to write important
points or make notes.

Intext Questions: Very short answer self check questions are asked after every section,
the answers to which are given at the end ofthe lesson. These will help you to check your
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What You Have Learnt: This is the summary of the main points of the lesson. It will
help in recapitulation and revision. You are welcome to add your own points to it also.

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Activities: Certain activities have been suggested for better understanding of the
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included in the content and you may refer to these for more information.
 Contents
CLASS-VI
Lesson 1 Matter....................................................................................... 3
Lesson 2 Acids, Alkali And Salts ........................................................... 29
Lesson 3 Carbon And Its Compounds.................................................... 43
CLASS-VII
Lesson 4 Changes In Daily Life ............................................................. 71
Lesson 5 Motion And Force .................................................................. 97
Lesson 6 Ordinary Machines ............................................................... 121
Lesson 7 Pressure................................................................................ 137
CLASS-VIII
Lesson 8 Mechanical Energy And Heat............................................... 163
Lesson 9 LightAnd Sound.................................................................. 189
Lesson 10 Elecricity CurrentAnd Magnetism...................................... 221
Lesson 11 Information-CommunicationTechnology ........................... 245
Lesson 12 Advancement in Food Production....................................... 265
Matter
CLASS-VI

Notes

CLASS-VI
Lesson 1 Matter
Lesson 2 Acids, Alkali and Salts
Lesson 3 Carbon and its Compounds

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 1

 Matter
CLASS-VI

Notes

2 Science, Level-C
Matter
CLASS-VI

1 Notes

MATTER

We see many things around us such as a table, chair, book, glass,

hills, mountains, river, birds, animals, sun, moon and stars etc.
All the objects seen around us are either born naturally or made
by humans. For example, the hill is made up of rocks; the book
is made of paper. Similarly, whether it is sand, glass, table-chair,
sun-moon etc., all are made up of some material. Let us now try
to know what this substance is. If we take the sand in our hands,
then we feel that there is some kind weight in the sand. The
weight is felt even when lifting a stone or a bucket full of water.
You also know that sand and water also surrounds the place.
Similarly, if we place a book on the table then it surrounds the
place and it also has some weight. In this lesson you will read
about the different states of matter and their components etc.
Matter consists of the same type of particles. Apart from this,
you will also be able to get information about various elements,
compounds and mixtures etc.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 3

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 Matter
CLASS-VI
<@>

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to;
Notes
• To know why substances are different;
• To know the composition of various substances;
• To know whether all substances are made from the same
element;
• To know whether all substances are known by the same name
; And
• To understand how the ingredients in the mixture can be
separated from each other.
1.1 SUBSTANCES
When you feel thirsty, you drink water or other beverages like
Shinkaji, lemonade or cold drinks etc. When you feel hot, you
switch on a cooler or fan and experience the wind. All such things
that you can see or cannot see, but can experience them, they are
called substances. You must have noticed that all these things
have some weight and they also cover the area of some places.
Hence, a substance can be defined as: "Any object that carries a
load and the space it occupies is called a substance."
Composition of Matter
Let's now try to know about the composition of matter whether
all substances are the same or different substances are different.
I The substances we see all around us are different from each other.
4 Vijanan, Level-C
Matter
CLASS-VI

If we break a small piece of iron until it is broken into such a

small part that it cannot be broken any further, then even this
small piece of iron has all the properties of iron present in it.
Notes
Therefore, we can say that any substance consists of the same
type of particles.
Atoms
You have known by now that all the substances found around us
are of different types. They all have different color, smell, taste,
size etc. If we break a mountain, then we will get big rocks. If
you break them too, you will get small pieces and if you keep
breaking more, then small particles of sand will be found. You
will see that the same properties are found in these small particles
which are in a rock. Therefore, we can say that a mountain is
formed by mixing small particles of sand. If you try to break
even a small particle of this sand, then it can be broken into very
small particles. In 1808, a scientist named Dalton, while studying
the structure of matter, told that such fine particles of any
substance, which have all the basic properties of matter, are called
atoms. Thus, we can say that all matter is made up of atoms.
Hence, an atom is the smallest component of a substance that
has all the properties of that substance.
An atom is that small particle of a substance, in which all the
properties of that substance are present. But it is to be noted here
that atoms can be further divided, but the properties of the particles
obtained from it can also be different from the properties of the
original material.
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 5
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 Matter
CLASS-VI

The structure of the atom

Gradually various discoveries revealed that atoms can be further
Notes subdivided. The center of an atom has a nucleus consisting mainly
of protons and neutrons. Electrons revolve around this nucleus.
Atoms of different elements have different structures. This is
shown in Figure 1.1 below:
Electron-1 Electron-6 Electron-7 Electron-8
Proton-1 Proton-6 Proton-7 Proton-8
Neuton-6 Neuton-7 Neuton-8
(a) Hydrogen (b) Carbon Atoms (c) Nitrogen atoms (d) Oxygen
atoms

0
Proton

Nucleus
Neutron

G- Electron

Fig. 1.1 Structure of different atoms

Molecules
The way vowels and consonants are in the Hindi alphabet, with
the help of which we can make many words. We make sentences
by adding these words. All sentences together form a text and a
book consisting of several lessons makes a book.

6 Vijanan, Level-C

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Matter
CLASS-VI

In the same way, atoms of the same substance combine to form

molecules. This molecule is the smallest part of any substance
that can live independently. For example, a molecule of water is
Notes
formed by joining two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen. Therefore, the smallest particle of a substance which
has all the properties of that substance and which can remain in
an independent state is called a molecule of that substance. Atoms
combine to form molecules. A molecule of hydrogen is made up
of two atoms of hydrogen. This is why so many substances are
found all around us, which form many types of substances.

1. What microscopic particles does a substance consist of?

2. How many atoms does a molecule of hydrogen consist of?
3. Write the definition of molecule?

1.2 STATES OF FLUID

Most liquids can be divided into three groups - solids, liquids
and gases, depending on their states. Let us now study them one
by one.
1. Solid: If you move a piece of wood or a book from one place
to another and press it with some force, you will see that neither
its shape nor volume changes. So such substances whose size
and volume are fixed are called solid such as ice, brick, chair,
book.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 7

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Matter
CLASS-VI

In the same way, atoms of the same substance combine to form

molecules. This molecule is the smallest part of any substance
that can live independently. For example, a molecule of water is
Notes
formed by joining two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen. Therefore, the smallest particle of a substance which
has all the properties of that substance and which can remain in
an independent state is called a molecule of that substance. Atoms
combine to form molecules. A molecule of hydrogen is made up
of two atoms of hydrogen. This is why so many substances are
found all around us, which form many types of substances.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

1. What microscopic particles does a substance consist of?
2. How many atoms does a molecule of hydrogen consist of?
3. Write the definition of molecule?

1.2 STATES OF FLUID

Most liquids can be divided into three groups - solids, liquids
and gases, depending on their states. Let us now study them one
by one.
1. Solid: If you move a piece of wood or a book from one place
to another and press it with some force, you will see that neither
its shape nor volume changes. So such substances whose size
and volume are fixed are called solid such as ice, brick, chair,
book.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 7

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Matter
CLASS-VI

3. Gas: Molecules in gases are far away from each other as

compared to both solid and liquid and the attraction force between
them is almost equal to zero. So molecules can move more freely.
Notes
Therefore, both their shape and size are fixed (Figure 1.2 (c)).

(a): solid (b): liquid (c): gas

Fig. 4.2 Status of Molecules in Solid, Fluid and Gas

Some common properties of solids, liquids and gases

Let us make a comparative study of the properties of solids,
liquids and gases with the help of the following table:
Table 4.1 - Comparative study of properties of solid, liquid
and gas
Properties Solid Liquid Gas
1. Size Definite Not sure Not sure
2. Volume Definite Definite Not sure
3. Force of attraction More Less than solid Almost zero
between molecules
4. Space between Close to each Are little far Are very much
molecules other away far away

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 9

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 Matter
CLASS-VI

The change in the state of substances

Notes

Fig. 1.3: Demonstration of the state of matter changes with

the example of water

Substances can also be changed from one state to another. We

can take water as an example to prove this. Water, which we use
for drinking, bathing, washing clothes, cooking, etc., is a liquid
state of matter. If we freeze it at a very low temperature then it
becomes ice which is in solid state.
And if this water is boiled then steam (vapor) is formed which is
gaseous state. On cooling the steam, water is formed again. Thus, we
see that ice, water and steam are different states of the same
substance (water). It can be understood in this way through Fig. 1.3.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2

1. Fill in the blank -
(i) There are three states of matter ……… and …….
(ii) Matter surrounds........ and contains ........

10 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI

(iii) The volume of the solid is fixed.

(iv) The fluid is …… fixed and shaped …….
2. (a) What is a substance? Notes

(b) What is a matter called?

3. Mark the correct ( ) or false ( ) in the following sentences:
(i) Matter consists of the same type of particles. ( )
(ii) There are three states of matter. ( )
(iii) The volume and size of solids can be changed. ( )
(iv) The space between the molecules of the fluid is
more than the molecules of gas. ( )
(v) Both the volume and size of the gas are not fixed. ( )
4. Name the state in which the matter is found.

1.3 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUND

Elements
We often find that there are many substances that consist of the
same type of atoms, such as oxygen, hydrogen, gold, copper,
silver, iron, nitrogen, chlorine, sulfur, magnesium, aluminum etc.
Such substances which consist of the same type of atoms are
called elements.
So far 109 elements have been detected out of which 92 elements
are found naturally.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 11

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 Matter
CLASS-VI

Chemical signs of elements

So far, 109 elements have yet been discovered, including some
Notes metals (iron, gold, copper, etc.) and some non-metals, such as
solids (iodine, sulfur, carbon), as gas (chlorine, Oxygen, nitrogen)
and liquid (bromine). Since the names of so many elements are
difficult to remember, that is why each element is written by a
special symbol. This sign is represented by the first one or two
letters of the Greek or Latin name of that element. Signs of some
elements of Hindi, English and Latin names and their atomic
weight are shown in the table below -
Table 1.2: Some elements of Hindi, English and Latin names
and signs and atomic weight
Element's Hindi Element's Chemical signals Nuclear
(English) name Latin name of elements Weight
Carbon Carbonium C 12
Hydrogen Hydrogenium H 1
Oxygen Oxygenium O 16
Aluminium Aluminum Al 27
Silver Argentium Ag 108
Nitrogen Nitrum N 14
Tin Stannum Sn 119
Zinc Zincum Zn 65
Iron Ferrum Fe 56
12 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI

Sodium Natrum Na 23
Chlorine Chlorum Cl 35.5
Copper Cuprium Cu 63.3 Notes
Compounds
Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or
more atoms. The constituent atoms of a compound cannot be
separated by physical methods. A compound is a new substance.
Its properties differ from the properties of the elements or
substances present. Most chemical substances are compounds.
Examples of compounds are salt, molasses, blue stone, alum,
saline, sugar and sulfuric agglomeration.
Chemical formulas
Just as the atoms of elements are written by signs, the molecules
of compounds are written by chemical formula. From the
chemical formula of a substance, we get to know the following
things about that substance:
1. The substance is made up of how many chemical elements,
2. How many atoms of each element are there in a molecule? and
3. What is the molecular weight of its molecule?
For example, we know that a molecule of water consists of two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, so if we were to write
its chemical formula, it would be H2O. Similarly, one molecule
of glucose is composed of 6 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of
hydrogen and 6 atoms of oxygen. Therefore, the chemical formula
of glucose is C6H12O6 which is also known as its molecule.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 13

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 Matter
CLASS-VI

To find the molecular weight of glucose, we need to know the

atomic weight of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which is as follows
- Atomic weight of carbon-12, Atomic weight of hydrogen-1,
Notes
Atomic weight of oxygen-16. Therefore, we can find the follows:
Since glucose has a molecule - C6H12O6, its molecular weight
will be:
Atomic mass= Atomic weight of 6x C + Atomic weight of 12 x
H + Atomic weight of 6xO
= 6 x 12 + 12 x 1 + 6 x 16
= 72 + 12 + 96
= 180
Similarly, we can find the molecular weight of other compounds
as well.
The chemical formulas of some commonly used compounds are
given below -
Ordinary salt - NaC1, Casting Soda - NaOH
Baking Powder - NaHCO3, Laundry Soda - Na2CO3
Sugar - C12H22O11, Blue Thoth- CuSO4 .5H2O
Marble - CaCO3, Alum - K2SO2 .A1 2 (SO 4),24H2O
ammonium chloride - NH2C1
Valency
The atoms of different elements form molecules of compounds,
such as one molecule of water consisting of two hydrogen atoms
and one atom of oxygen. Similarly, different elements combine

14 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI

to form different types of compounds. The combining ability of

a chemical element is called its valency. For example -
Valency of C1 in HC1 = 1 Notes

Valency of H2O in O = 2
Valency NH3 in N = 3
Valency CH4 in C = 4
These compounds combine 1, 2, 3 and 4 atoms of hydrogen from
one atom of chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon respectively
to form HC1 (hydrogen acid), H2O (water), NH2 (ammonia),
CH4 (methane) etc. Hence the valency of these elements will be
1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
Chemical equation
Two or more substances are required for any chemical reaction
to occur. These substances, through which the reaction takes
place, are called reactants. The substances that are formed as a
result of the process are called products. To write a chemical
equation, an arrow ( ) is placed between these two types of
substances. We can illustrate this with the following example. If
we burn magnesium in oxygen, then magnesium oxide is formed
and heat is released. This will be written in words like this:
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium Oxide Heat
This reaction consists of magnesium and oxygen reactants and
the product produced (i.e. obtained at the end of the action) of
the magnesium oxide product.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 15

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 Matter
CLASS-VI

If we write chemical formulas of the above substances instead of

words, we can write the above reaction by the following equation:

Notes 2Mg = 02 - 2 MgO + Heat

This is called a chemical equation.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3

1. Which of the following is a formula of simple salt?
(A) Nac1 (B) CaC1 2 (C) Cu (D) Ag
2. Write the formula of copper.
3. Write a chemical formula of saline and marble.
(A) …… (B) ……
4. The water molecule is H2 O. Find its atomic mass.
(Given: - atomic weight of hydrogen 1 - atomic weight of
oxygen - 16).

1.4 MIXTURE
If you add some sugar or salt to the water, we see that in a short
time they dissolve in the water and then do not appear in the
water. Yes, water does become sweet or salty. We get a mixture
of these two by mixing water and sugar or by mixing water and
salt. Thus mixing of two or more substances in any proportion
gives that mixture. Similarly, lemon-water, Shinkaji, sugar
solution, garam masala, sea water etc. are all examples of
mixtures. Therefore, substances that are formed on mixing any
two or more elements or compounds in any uncertain proportion

16 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI
are called mixtures. The air around us is also a mixture, in which
many types of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide,
carbon dioxide, etc. are found.
Notes
4-I·
~s
i;f

ACTIVITY 1.1
What you need to do: Comparison between mixture and
compound.
What you need: Sugar, test tube, spirit lamp, water etc.
How to do it: Heat a little sugar in a test tube (test tube).
Gradually it turns brown. It becomes black on overheating.
This black substance is carbon. If you look at the test tube
carefully, a few drops of water are seen upwards. This means
that sugar is not a substance but a compound. Sugar contains
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
On the other hand, since the sugar solution consists of water
and sugar, it is a mixture.
What you noticed: On heating the sugar, it turns into its
components and water from it gets collected in the test tube.
Conclusion: Sugar is a compound and sugar solution is a
mixture.
Differences in elements, compounds and mixtures
The properties of these substances vary depending on the
molecular arrangements of the elements, compounds and
mixtures. The following tables show the difference between
elements and compounds and mixtures and compounds.

I
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 17
 Matter
CLASS-VI

Table 4.3: Difference between elements and compounds

Elements Compounds
Notes 1. Consists of only one 1. Different types of atoms are
type of atom. formed by mutual combination.
2. Cannot be decomposed 2. Can be decomposed into more
into new substance than one new substance.
Table 4.4: Difference between Mixture and Compound
Mixture Compound
1. There is no fixed ratio 1. The ingredients have a
of ingredients. fixed ratio.
2. Components can be 2. Components cannot be
separated by simple means. separated by simple means.
3. The composition is not 3. The atoms in all parts of the
uniform in all parts of compound have the same
the mixture. composition.
4. They reflect the properties 4. They exhibit some new properties
of all their ingredients. apart from their ingredients.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.4

1. Which of the following sentences are true and false?
(i) All the substances in the mixture have the same ratio.( )
(ii) Air is a mixture of different gases. ( )
(iii) Lemonade is a compound. ( )
18 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI

2. Give any three examples of mixing from your daily life.

3. Write any difference between the element and the compound.
4. Explain the definition of mixture. Notes

1.5 SEPERATING THE DIFFERENT

COMPONENTS OF THE MIXTURE
To make lemonade or Shinkaji, we mix water, lemon juice and
sugar with each other. It is a type of mixture. Most of the
substances we look around are mixtures. For example - milk,
lassi, soil, air etc. Ice cream or Kulfi is also a mixture of many
substances. If some substances are mixed by mistake, then they
need to be separated from each other, but sometimes it is very
difficult to separate them. In such situations we use a variety of
special methods, such as filtering, gleaning, sublimation,
evaporation, precipitation, etc., to easily separate substances. Let
us know about them in brief.
Gleaning (Handpicking)

Fig. 1.5 Separating impurities by handpicking

You must have noticed that in homes, often grains and pulses are
picked by hand by separating the pebbles etc. This method is

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara

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19
 Matter
CLASS-VI

called gleaning. This method is called gleaning. This can happen

because the color, shape, grain, and pulses of the substances found
in the mixture differ from the particles in the mixture. (Fig. 1.4).
Notes
Winnowing
Have you noticed? - How to clean wheat, rice etc. in the house.
They are winnowed and cleaned. In wheat, pebbles- stones, straw
etc. are separated by winnowing through flail.

Fig. 1.5 Winnowing obtain the pure substance

Have you seen it? When the wheat crop is ready in the field and
the straw has to be separated from the wheat, the farmers take
the mixture of wheat and straw in the soup and throw it from the
height. By doing this, the straw, which is lighter, flies away with
the wind and collects it, and the wheat falls down due to the
heaviness, which is later cleaned. This is how wheat and chaff
are separated. (Fig. 1.5).
Sieving
At home, the mother uses a sieve to separate the bran (husk)
from the flour. The sieve separates those substances which have

--
20 Vijanan, Level-C
Matter
CLASS-VI

Notes

Fig. 1.6 Separating the pure substance by sieving the mixture

different sizes of particles. Sand and scree are also separated in a

similar way. (Fig. 1.6).
By Magnet
When a substance is found in the mixture, which can be attracted
towards the magnet, it can be separated by the magnet. If iron
shavings are found in the sawdust, it can be separated in this
way (Figure 1.7).

Fig. 1.7 separating iron shavings and sawdust by a magnet

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 21

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 Matter
CLASS-VI

Sublimation
You must have noticed that when we put a naphthalene ball in
Notes woolen clothes, it gradually disappears. Would you like to know
why this happened? This happened because some solid matter
becomes vapor without changing into liquid. Have you ever
noticed camphor burning in worships, it is also an example of
this. If one of the substances inside the mixture is such a solid
that it becomes vapor without changing into liquid, then by this
method, it is separated from the mixture. Sublimation is the
conversion of liquid into vapor without changing.
To understand this action, we take a mixture of iodine and sand.
Put it in a porcelain cup and keep the funnel upside down on top
of that cup and close the funnel with a cotton ball. Now we place
this bowl on a wire mesh and heat it. The heat turns into iodine
gas and this vapor accumulates on the cold part of the funnel and
the sand remains in the bowl. Thus, iodine and sand are separated

Evaporation
We use the evaporation method to obtain salt from sea water. For
this, we fill the water in a pit and due to the sunlight, the water
gradually evaporates and the salt remains in the pit. You can heat
the solution to get salt from the salt solution in the house and can
get salt by blowing water from it.

22 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI

Filtration
Sand and water solutions are easily separated by the filtration
method. Putting filter paper in the funnel as per the picture, the Notes
sand and water solution are gently poured into the funnel. The
water is filtered and goes into the beaker and the sand remains
on top.
Sedimentation and Decantation
If you make a solution of sand and water and leave it in a beaker,
you will see that the sand settles down slowly. The sand gets
sediment. This is called sedimentation. The water comes up. Pour
out the water and separate it.
When the above clean water is poured into another vessel, this
process is called Decantation.
Loading
Take the dirty water and keep it for a while. See what happens?
Does the dirt sit down slowly? Yes, but with a little shaking, dirt
particles start appearing again in the water. Now tie the alum in a
thread and hang it in the middle of dirty water and see what
happens? The particles of mud along with alum particles get heavy
and sit in the bottom, that is, they become depressed, which are
then removed and separated. This method is called loading.
Distillation
Distilled water is required to make medicines. Distilled water is
also needed for research and etc. in laboratories. Distilled water

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 23

---------------------------------
 Matter
CLASS-VI
is obtained by distillation method. In this, the water is first heated
and steam is made, which is collected and cooled and we get
distilled water.
Notes
~-I·
~§
...

ACTIVITY 1.2
What you need to do: Separate the salt and camphor mixture.
What you need: Salt, camphor, bottle, hot water.
How to do it: Fill a bottle with a mixture of salt and camphor
and close its mouth. When this bottle is kept in hot water, the
camphor gets heated and turns into white smoke and cools
and collects in the top part of the bottle. You will see that salt
and camphor can be easily separated by the process of
sublimation. Salt remains in the bottom of the bottle.
Conclusion: Thus, this is how the mixture of salt and camphor
is separated.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.5
1. Which method would you use to separate the following?
(i) Pieces of blue and green marble stone.....
(ii) Salt from sea water………
(iii) Sand and scum......
(iv) Iron shavings from tea leaf…...
2. The conversion of a solid into vapor without changing it into
liquid is called ……….
I (A) Evaporation (B) Decantation (C) Sublimation (D) Filtering
24 Vijanan, Level-C
Matter
CLASS-VI

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• Matter surrounds space and carries weight.
Notes
• There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.
• Both volume and size of solid substances are fixed, while
volume of liquid substances is fixed but the size is not fixed.
Both the volume and size of gaseous substances are
undetermined.
• The atom is the smallest part of matter which has all the
properties of that substance. Atoms combine to form
molecules.
• Atoms of two or more atoms of the same element form a
molecule.
• Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two
or more substances.
• The substance that is formed by combining any two or more
elements or compounds in any uncertain proportion is called
a mixture.
• Pure substances from the mixture are handpicking, sieving,
winnowing, evaporation, decantation, etc. by methods.
• Any chemical element is also written by its signs rather than
its name.
• The Chemical equation gives information about the
components (substances) of a reaction and the substances it
produces.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 25

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 Matter
CLASS-VI

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Give three examples of solid, liquid and gas substances.
Notes
2. Explain the difference between atoms and molecules.

3. The sludge water is cleaned by the loading method. For loading

which substance is used?

4. Sort elements and mixtures from the following substances -

water, salt, mercury, iron, wood, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen,

Sugar, chlorine, sugar syrup, saliva, garam masala, baking
soda.

5. How can the mixture of saline and sand be separated?

6. What is a compound called? Give two examples.

7. What is valency? Explain by giving examples.

8. What is a chemical formula? What information can be obtained

from it? Give an example.

9. Describe the distillation method with a picture.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

1.1

1. Atoms

2. Two atoms

26 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI

3. The smallest particle of matter that has all the properties

of matter and which can remain in an independent state

1.2 Notes

1. (a) solid, liquid, gas

(b) location, loads

(c) Size

(d) Volume, Indeterminate

2. Substances (matter) occupy space and carry weight?

3. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) True

4. Three-solids, liquids, gases

1.3

1. NaC1

2. Cu

3. (i) NH4C1

(ii) CaCO3

4. H2O

2 x H +O

2 x 1 + 6 = 18

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 27

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 Matter
CLASS-VI

1.4
1. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False
Notes 2. Lemonade, lassi, air, hot spices, seawater etc.
3. atom- is formed from the same type of atoms.
Compound - is formed by the combination of different
types of atoms.
1.5
1. (i) Handpicking (ii) Evaporation (iii) Sieving (iv) By
Magnet
2. Sublimation

28 Vijanan, Level-C
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Matter
CLASS-VI

Notes

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 29

Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

2 Notes

ACIDS, ALKALI AND SALTS

We use various chemical substances in daily life. Many of these

are also used in our kitchen. Salt and vinegar are used to make
food tastier and to preserve pickle, that is, from spoilage. Eating
soda is added to make peas, chickpeas, rajma etc. delicious and
quick. Eating soda is also used to make bread, biscuits and cakes
soft like sponges. Lemon and eating soda are used to treat
indigestion. Washing soda is used in washing clothes.
Various substances are used in our daily life. Many of these
substances can be divided into acids, bases and salts.
In this lesson, we will study the nature, properties and uses of
acids, bases and salts.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
• understand acids, their properties and uses;
• understand alkali, their properties and uses; and
• understand salts and their uses.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 29

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 Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

2.1 ACIDS
Why is sea water saline?
Notes
You must have seen and eaten many such substances in your
life, which have a sour taste. Some examples of these substances
are lemon, tamarind, vinegar, orange and yogurt. Have you ever
wondered why these substances are sour? Actually, the sour taste
of these substances is due to the acids present in them. For
example, citric acid is present in lemon and orange and acetic
acid in vinegar. Even cold materials (Eg Coke, Pepsi, Campa
etc.) also contain carbonic acid. When carbon dioxide present in
these substances interacts with water, it results in carbonic acid.
Acid is the word for acid in English. The word acid originates
from the Latin word acidus. Acidus means 'sour'.
You will be surprised to know that our stomach also contains
hydrochloric acid, which helps in digesting our food.
Hydrochloric acid comes under the category of mineral acids.
Mineral acids are acids that can be made from minerals. Sulfuric
acid (sulfuric acid) and nitric acid are also mineral acids. How
are these different acids different from each other?
Actually mineral acids are very strong acids and have very
corrosive (smelting) properties. But the acids found in lemon,
vinegar and other substances are very weak acids.
Let us now study some properties of acids. Specific properties
of acid are as follows:

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Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

Properties of acids
1. Effect on litmus paper
(a) Blue litmus: If you take a few drops of any acid on blue Notes
litmus paper, you will see that the acid turns blue litmus red.
(B) Red litmus: But there is no change due to acid in the color
of red litmus.
You can test this with the help of the following activities.

ACTIVITY 2.1
What you have to do: Find out the nature of lemon, orange,
raw mango and amla.
What you need: Some seasonal fruits like lemon, orange, raw
mango, tamarind, amla etc.
How to do you:
1. Cut a small piece of each fruit and grind it.
2. After that remove the juice from them.
3. Test these juices with red and blue litmus paper.
What you see:
S.N. Substance Effect on blue litmus Effect on red litmus
1. Lemon The blue litmus There is no change in
turns red. the color of red litmus.
2. Orange Blue litmus turns red. There is no change in
the color of red litmus.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara

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31
 Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

3. Raw Mango Blue litmus turns red. There is no change in

the color of red litmus.

Notes 4. Amla Blue litmus turns red. There is no change in

the color of red litmus.
What have you learnt? Lemon, orange, raw mango and amla
are acidic in nature.
2. Effect on Metals
Acids react with many metals to form hydrogen gas. For example
metals like zinc, magnesium, aluminum, etc. react with dilute
hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas. Such an experiment
is shown in Figure 2. 1(a) You can see bubbles of hydrogen gas on
a metal rod immersed in diluted hydrochloric acid in the picture.
But by putting copper rod in dilute hydrochloric acid, one can
see bubbles of hydrogen gas on the metal rod immersed in
hydrochloric acid.
3. Reaction with carbonate

Co,

cO•
cO•
"g
co,
0
.?
co, .9
C'g
co,
q~

Fig. 2.1 Acid action on metals

-------------
32 Vijnana, Level-C
Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

You must have experienced that when we do whitewash in the

houses and soak the kalai in the water at night, from which the
gas comes out. Heat is also released. Acids also react with
Notes
carbonates of metals such as calcium carbonate (marble pieces),
sodium carbonate, or magnesium carbonate. This reaction
produces carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is
colorless and odorless and does not help in burning. The presence
of this gas can be checked with lime water. When CO2 gas flows
into the lime water, it becomes milky. This experiment is shown
in Figure 2.2. After studying the properties of acids, let us now
get information about their uses.
Use of acids
Acids are mostly used in laboratories and industries.
1. Sulfur acid is used in making artificial fertilizers, soaps,
pigments (dyes) etc. The acid of sulfur is also called the king
of acids.
2. Nitric acid is used in making pigments, medicines, explosives
and synthetic fertilizers.
3. Hydrochloric acid is used to remove rust and impurities from
the outer layers of objects made of iron and steel. These metals
can then be galvanized. Galvanization is the chemical method
in which a layer of zinc is applied to iron objects. This process
keeps utensils clean and lasts most of the day.
4. Vinegar is used in the preservation of raw foods such as pickles,
salads, etc.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 33

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 Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

5. Lemon juice and tamarind solution is used to clean things

made of utensils and brass.

Notes
INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1
Enter the appropriate word in the following blanks -
1. Acids turn blue litmus into …….
2. Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to remove ........ gas.
3. Dilute acids react with carbonates to remove ........ gas.
4. The sour taste of tamarind is due to its presence in …… .
5. Lemons and oranges contains ……..acid.

2.2 ALKALI
In your daily life,you use different types of soaps and detergents.
Washing and cleaning clothes are done with their help. These
substances contain alkalis, which are chemically hydroxides or
oxides of metals and react with water to form hydroxides. Oxide
compounds are formed by the reaction of elements with oxygen.
Hydroxides of metals are compounds in which one or more
hydroxyl (-OH) groups are attached to the metal. Metallic oxide
can be represented by M (OH)n in which n is the valence of
metal M.
Common examples of alkalis are sodium hydroxide (caustic
soda), calcium hydroxide, and magnesium hydroxide. You would
love to know that ammonium hydroxide contains ammonium
ion which is the metal hydroxide, but it does not contain metal.

34 Vijnana, Level-C
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Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

Let us now study the properties of alkalis:

Properties of alkalis -
1. Smooth on touch: You must have noticed that soap and Notes

detergents appear smooth on touching. In fact, this is the

common property of alkalis, due to which they appear smooth
on the sieve.
2. The taste of alkalis is bitter.
3. Effect on litmus:
(a) Blue litmus: There is no color change in the litmus when
the blue litmus of alkali is processed. (See Figure 2.3 (a)).
(b) Red litmus: Red litmus turns blue under the influence of
alkalis. (See Figure 2.3 (b)).
4. Effect on phenolphthalein solution: Pink color is obtained by
adding a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator in an alkaline
solution. Indicators are substances that give different colors
with acids and bases.
5. Effect on Methyl Orange 5 Methyl Orange is another indicator.
It has no effect on the color of alkaline solution.
Activity 2.2
What you need to do: To check for the presence of alkali.
What you need: turmeric, a pinch of detergent (or a vial of
soap), a piece of cloth or paper
How to do:

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 35

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 Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

1. Put a pinch of turmeric on a paper or cloth.

2. Prepare a solution of soap or detergent in water.
Notes 3. Put a few drops of soap or detergent mixture on turmeric
powder and mix them both.
What do you see: The yellow color of turmeric has changed
to red.
What you learned: Turmeric powder is used as an indicator
to determine the presence of alkali.
Let us now read about their uses after learning the properties of
alkalis.
Uses of alkalis
1. Caustic soda or is used in soap making, paper making and
petroleum refining.
2. Lime (calcium oxide) is used to neutralize (eliminate) the
acidic soil properties. It is also used in whitening.
3. Ammonium hydroxide is used in the laboratory. It is also used
in dry cleaning to remove dark stains from clothes.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2

Fill in the blank with appropriate words in the following
sentences:
1. Sodium hydroxide is also known as ……….
2. By alkalis .......... does not change the color of litmus.
3. By alkali ……… changes from colorless to pink.

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Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

2.3 SALTS
Have you ever wondered what our food would taste like without
salt? Common salt is one of the common salts that is used mainly
Notes
in our daily life.
The chemical name of common salt is sodium chloride (NaC1).
Another such salt is- Soda, which is chemically named sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3).
Now you might be wondering what are salts and how are their
names given? Let us know the answers to these questions.
You read about the properties of acids and bases in parts 2.1 and
2.2. Let us find out what happens by mixing acid and alkali?
When any acid and alkali are added, we get it as a salt and water
product.
Acid - Alkali - Saline - Water
This reaction is called a neutralization reaction. Determination
of alkali with acid or repeating acid with alkali is called
neutralization. Let us now write various neutralization reactions:
Acid Alkali Salt Water
hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide sodium chloride water
(acid) (alkali) (ordinary salt)
nitric acid sodium hydroxide sodium nitrate water
(acid) (alkali)
nitric acid Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Nitrate Water
( Acid) (Alkali) (Eating Soda)

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 37

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 Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

You have noticed that the salt is named after its acid and alkali,
which are formed by mixing it.

Notes
As you have seen, acids and bases destroy each other's effect
when salts are formed. From this, what can you guess about the
properties and nature of salts? Let us study the effect of some
salts on litmus.
Effect of salts on litmus
Salts Effect on Effect on Conclusions
blue litmus red litmus
Sodium chloride No change No change Indifferent
in color in color
Sodium bicarbonate The Color turns blue Alkaline
Sodium carbonate The color turns blue alkaline
From the above experiment we see that sodium chloride has no
effect on red or blue litmus. Its opinion is that its nature is neither
acidic nor alkaline so ordinary salt is neutral. But you see that
the other two salts are not indifferent. Therefore, we can say that
salts can be neutral, alkaline or acidic, which you will study in
the next classes.
Let us now study the uses of some salts.
Uses of Salts
1. Sodium Chloride (NaC1): It is also called normal salt, which
is used in foods.
2. Sodium carbonate: It is also known as washing soda.

38 Vijnana, Level-C
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Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

3. Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3): It is also called baking

soda.

4. Copper sulphate (Cu4SO4): It is also colloquially called blue Notes

stone or vitriol of copper.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.3

Fill in the blanks in the sentences given below -

1. Salts are obtained by the reaction of .......... and ..........

2. Eating soda is …….

3. Copper sulphate is used in agriculture as ........

4. Sodium chloride is .......... in nature.

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• Acids are substances that turn blue litmus red.

• When reacting with active metals such as zinc, magnesium

and copper acids, the hydrogen gas is released.

• Acid neutralizes alkali.

• The acid is used in laboratories and industries.

• The bases turn the red litmus blue.

• Alkalis are used in laboratories, homes and industries.

• Normal salt is used to make food delicious, which is a salt.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 39

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 Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

• Copper sulphate is used in fields as a fungicide

• Baking soda makes the cake lighter and spongy.

Notes • Washing soda is used to make glass.

Let's learn by doing some activity 5.3

1. Collect water from various sources like well, tap, river, lake,
tubewell. Examine their acidic, alkaline or neutral nature.

2. Take soil from different areas and see it with the help of litmus
paper to find out its nature, which is acidic, alkaline or neutral,
and also get information about the crops grown in them. Can
you find any relation between the type of soil and the crops
grown in it?

3. Grind some colorful flower petals and beetroot and black

carrots. Make a solution with water and test them by adding
a few drops of acid or alkali in their solutions and note the
changed color.

Can these substances be used to test acid and alkali instead

of litmus?

4. Collect rainwater from your area and industrial area and test
its acidic or alkaline nature. What do you conclude?

5. Get information about the source of common salt. How is

its refining and packing done before being sold in the
market.

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Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Name any three acids.
Notes
2. State two simple properties of acids.
3. Which of these acids are used to make the following
substances -
(i) dyes
(ii) explosive substances
(iii) detergents
4. Which metal does not react with acid to produce hydrogen
gas?
5. Which litmus does not change color in acid?
6. Why are raw mangoes sour and ripe sweet?
7. Write the names of any two bases.
8. Which alkali is not a metallic hydroxide?
9. What is the color of turmeric in an alkaline solution?
10. Which alkali is used in making soap?
11. Why is sea water salty?
12. What is a neutralization reaction?
13. Classify the following into acids, bases and salts:
lime, sodium chloride, vinegar, sodium hydroxide, copper
sulfate, sodium bicarbonate, lemon juice
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 41
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 Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

2.1
Notes
1. Red
2. Hydrogen
3. Carbon dioxide
4. acid
5. Citric acid
2.2
1. caustic soda
2. Blue
3. Phenopathylene
2.3
1. acids, alkalis
2. Sodium bicarbonate
3. Fungus Killer
4. indifferent

42 Vijnana, Level-C
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Acids, Alkali and Salts
CLASS-VI

Notes

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 43

Carbon And Its Compounds
CLASS-VI

3 Notes

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

You see and use a variety of objects such as diamond rings, burnt
paper, smoke coming out of the chimney, pencils, shoe polish,
electrodes etc. every day. You will be surprised to know that the
same element is used in the making of all these things. You try to
name it. You might have guessed it right. Carbon is present in all
of this. Carbon is found in many substances such as black matter
obtained from burning of paper, or smoke of motor or bus. Carbon
is found in the pencil marks (handwriting), coal or wood coal
etc. Let us now get more information about this element because
these elements are very important for us. In this lesson you will
also read about some compounds and fuels of carbon.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
• know carbon, its types and uses; And
• fuel, types of fuel to explain fuel conservation.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 43

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 Carbon And Its Compounds
CLASS-VI

3.1 CARBON
Carbon is the 12th element found in abundant quantities in the
Notes
Earth's upper layer (surface). In nature it is found in both
independent and combined states. On the surface of the earth, it
is found independently in the form of coal, diamonds and graphite.
It is present in combined form as compounds and through the
form of nature in petroleum. Carbon is such a wonderful element,
which is present in millions of types of compounds.
Carbon is a non-metal. Non-metal is the element whose oxides
dissolve in water to form acids. Let us prove by an experiment
that carbon is a non-metallic element.
Wood Charcoal
This type of coal can be obtained from wood, sugar and bones.
Coal is formed when these substances are heated in the absence
of air. Coal obtained from wood is called lump charcoal, coal
obtained from sugar is sugar charcoal, and coal obtained from
animal bones is bones charcoal. They all have different qualities.
Let's get information about each of these.
1. Lump coal - It is a black perforated solid. It absorbs gases so
it is used to make gas masks.

ACTIVITY 3.1 J
What you need to do: Prove that carbon is a nonmetal.
What you need: Metal plate, charcoal, brazier, wide-mouth
bottle, lid, red and blue litmus paper.

44 Vijnana, Level-C
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Carbon And Its Compounds
CLASS-VI

How to do it: Take a plate of metal and put burning coal on it.
Burn the bottle with a wide mouth on the coal for about five
minutes. Now lift the bottle and place it directly above the
Notes
table. Close the mouth of the bottle with a lid. Add a little
water to the bottle and shake it with the mouth closed. Put
blue and red litmus paper inside the bottle. Did you see any
change? Write down what you noticed.

What you noticed: The gas that comes out of the burning
coal dissolves in the water. And this gas solution made in water
turns blue litmus paper into red.

What you learnt: Burning of charcoal in the air creates an

oxide, which can be called acidic in nature because charcoal is
incomplete and contains carbon, so we can call carbon as a
non-metal.

Fig. 3.1 Carbon is a nonmetal

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara

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45
 Carbon And Its Compounds
CLASS-VI
2. Bone Charcoal - This color remains. It is used to remove the
brown color of sugar and make it white when making sugar
from sugarcane.
Notes
3. Sugar Charcoal - This is the most pure form of carbon. It is
mainly used to derive metals from their oxides.
Zinc Oxide Carbon (sugar charcoal) Zinc carbon monoxide
Sugar charcoal can be obtained by removing water from
sugar.
~-I-
~s
~

ACTIVITY 3.2
What you need to do: To obtain sugar charcoal in your home.
What you need: One tablespoon, sugar, burner or fireplace
What do you need to do: Take some sugar in a tablespoon.
Heat the spoon over a flame. Write down what you noticed.
What you noticed: The sugar first melts, then turns brown
and finally blackens and dries. A black ash-like remnant
remains. This residue is only sugar charcoal.
What You Learnt: Charcoal can be obtained by heating sugar.
Coke
Coke is obtained by heating coal in the absence of air. During
this process, the black residue remains. It is a good fuel compared
I
46 Vijnana, Level-C
Carbon And Its Compounds
CLASS-VI

to coal. Can you guess why? Because it does not emit smoke on
burning. It is used to obtain metals from metal oxides.
Kajal (black like carbon) Notes

The carbon that gathers after the flame of smoke is called kajal
(carbon soot). A few years ago the practice of burning kerosene
oil in lamps was common. When we burn kerosene, a lot of black
smoke gets collected on the glass chimney of the lamp. This
kajal or soot is used to make printer ink, carbon paper, shoe polish
and black paint (coal-tar). It is also used to make filters in the
rubber tires of buses and tractors.
Coal
Coal is a fossil fuel. In ancient times, coal has been formed
millions of years after the big trees and plants were buried in the
earth. Due to high pressure and high temperature inside the earth,
coal was slowly formed from the plant. This coal is hard and
black solid. It mainly consists of carbon. Apart from carbon, it
also contains many other compound substances. Hydrogen and
Oxygen is also there. In our country coal is found in the states of
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Orissa etc. Coal is
used in homes and industries.

3.2 TYPES OF CARBON

Carbon is found in two forms- (1) crystalline (crystal-forming)
and (2) amorphous (shapeless)
crystalline atoms arranged in an order. Diamond and graphite
are two crystalline forms of carbon.
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 47
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 Carbon And Its Compounds
CLASS-VI
Diamond
Each atom of the carbon in the diamond is attached to the other
Notes four carbon atoms by the attraction force. Diamonds have a three-
dimensional (solid) structure. Due to this firm structure, the
diamonds are very hard substances.
Fig. 3.2 Diamond Structure
The diamonds are found about 150 km below the surface of the
earth. Where the heat and pressure are very high. In our country,
diamonds are found in Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
Graphite
Fig. 3.3 Graphite composition
The carbon atoms in graphite are arranged as layers (one above
the other). The force between these layers is less. This can cause
the layers to slide over each other. Hence graphite is soft and
I smooth to touch.
48 Vijnana, Level-C
Carbon And Its Compounds
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Comparison of diamond and graphite

Although both diamond and graphite are similar to carbon, the
properties of diamond and graphite are compared in Table 3.1. Notes
Table 3.1: Comparison of properties of diamond and graphite
Properties Diamond Graphite
1. Color Colorless Dark grey
2. Hardness Highly hard Soft
3. Density Heavy light
4. Paper and scratch Makes marks on paper Makes marks on paper
5. Combustion Carbon dioxide is Carbon dioxide gas is
formed when ignited released when ignited in
in air at high air at a lower temperature
temperature. than diamond.
6. Use Used in making Used as lubricants in
jewellery for its fast luster and in drill
machines for its moving vehicles.
hardness. It is soft and smooth.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is 0.03 percent of the total volume of air. This
gas is produced by burning of fuel, by respiration and by rotting
of animals and plants (vegetables) etc. and is added to the
atmosphere. The concentration of this gas remains constant
(fixed) in the atmosphere, as it is used by plants in the process of
photosynthesis.
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Uses
1. Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers.
Notes 2. Dry ice is also called dry carbon dioxide, which is used for
refrigeration.
3. Carbon dioxide is also used in cold beverages.
The presence of carbon dioxide can be determined by the
following tests:
1. When carbon dioxide gas flows into lime water, its color
becomes milky.
2. When a burning stick is taken to a jar filled with carbon
dioxide, carbon dioxide does not help its combustion process
like a firefighter.
Carbon monoxide
We often read the news in the newspapers that on seeing it in the
morning it was found that some people were found dead in a
closed room, who were sleeping by burning coal in the fireplace.
Have you ever tried to find out the reason why this happened?
This happened because the burning of coal produces carbon
monoxide, which is a toxic gas, and also a certain amount of air
exchange in closed rooms. If there is one percent of carbon
monoxide in the room, it can cause death.
When coke is burnt with a certain amount of air, carbon monoxide
is produced.

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Properties:
It is colorless, odorless gas. This is why it is not easily detected.
Coal gas, which is used as an industrial fuel, is also carbon Notes
monoxide.
It is used to obtain metals from metal oxides.
Metal Oxide Carbon Monoxide Metal Carbon Dioxide
How can we feel the presence of carbon monoxide? Carbon
monoxide burns with blue flame and gives carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide can also be tested, which turns lime water milky.
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and carbon. They are
found in petroleum and natural gases. Methane (CH4), Ethane
(C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are some examples
of hydrocarbons. The first 4 are hydrocarbon gases, the next 13
are liquids, and the rest are solid
Uses of hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are used as fuel. Natural gas mainly consists of
methane. The residuals of plants and animals are used to make
left gas, which is mainly methane gas. Methane gas is also known
as marsh gas, because it is formed by decomposition of fauna
and flora in marshy areas. Butane is brought into liquid state by
pressure and (LPG) (liquid petroleum gas) is filled into the
cylinder.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

1. Make pairs of the following:
Notes
(i) diamond (a) marking on paper
(ii) graphite (b) filter of rubber tires
(iii) animal coal (c) good source of coal
(iv) kajal (d) Brown sugar
(v) coke (e) Extremely harsh substance
2. Fill in the blanks by selecting the correct words.
(I) When we burn the paper in the air, a black substance is
left. This substance is called.
(ii) Carbon is a........ (metal / nonmetal).
(iii) Which is the carbon oxide that helps in obtaining pure
metal from metal oxides?

3.3 FUEL
We use wood, cow dung cakes, kerosene (kerosene), bio gas or
(LPG) gas in the stove for cooking. Scooters and buses run on
diesel, petrol and (CNG) roads. In the fields, the tractor also runs
on diesel. Thermal power plant burn coals to generate electricity.
A substance that produces energy (heat) on burning is called fuel.
Therefore, wood, cow dung, kerosene, biogas, diesel, coal etc.
are called fuel.

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Classification of fuels
According to the physical state of fuels, they are classified as
solid, liquid and gas fuels. . Notes

1. Solid fuel - Examples of solid fuels are wood, cow dung,

coal, coke and wax. Even today, coal is an important solid
fuel. Coal is also called fossil fuel, because millions of years
ago, the trees of the forest were buried in the bottom layer of
the earth and became coal due to high temperature and high
pressure. Around half of
the energy consumed
around the world comes
from coal. In rural areas,
about 80 percent of the
required energy is obtained
from wood, waste material
obtained from agriculture
and cow dung. Coal is
mostly used in the energy
generating and steel
industries. Fig. 3.4 Solid Fuel
2. Fluid Fuel - If you have Gasoline (Petrol), Kerosene and
Diesel etc. Must have seen These are all liquid fuels. Do you
know how they came to be under the earth? These are also
called fossil fuels. Millions of years ago, sea creatures and
plants were buried in the soil. There was a process of bacteria
inside the Earth at high temperature and high pressure, due to
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which the carbon compounds present in the body of plants

and animals were converted into petroleum.

Notes Petroleum is found in the middle of rocks deep inside the

earth. Crude petroleum is
pumped out of the well by a
pump, which is a dark colored
fluid, as it is used in many
industries. Therefore, is also
called black gold. In further
classes you will study the
process of achieving this. Apart
from petrol, other substances
from petroleum like petroleum
gas, kerosene, diesel, lubricating
oil And naphtha etc. are also
obtained. Fig. 3.5 Fluid Fuel

3. Gaseous Fuel: Natural Gas, Coal Gas and LPG (Liquified)

Petroleum gases) are gaseous fuels. They are highly flammable

Fig. 3.6 liquid gas

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and produce a large amount of heat upon burning. Methane is

a major component of natural gas. In Mumbai, gas is sent
directly to homes by pipeline. Nowadays, CNG (Compressed
Notes
Natural Gas) is being used as fuel in vehicles in Delhi. Biogas
is obtained by decomposition of dung, plant and fodder etc. It
is a good fuel that is used in villages.
Fuel selection
If you have to choose a fuel, then what things will you keep in
mind? If you know about cow dung, wood, kerosene, coal and
LPG etc. then how will you be able to choose which is the best
fuel for cooking in the kitchen? The fuel you choose to use, you
first of all see that it gives more energy.
This is possible only when you try to burn the same amount of
different types of fuel, then you can compare the ability of
different fuels to generate energy. Thermal value is known to
determine the energy generating capacity. When a fuel is
completely burnt, the energy it produces is the thermal value of
that fuel. Thermal values of some common fuels in kilojoules /
gram units are given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Thermal values of some fuels
Fuel - Thermal values (kilojoules / gram)
Wood - 17
Coal - 33
Biogas - 40

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Alcohol - 44
Diesel - 44
Notes Kerosene - 43
Petrol - 48
LPG - 50
Natural Gas - 55
Hydrogen Gas - 150
From the table above it can be determined that the solids have
lower thermal energy values, whereas gaseous fuels have the
highest and liquid fuels have higher thermal solids and gas fuels
have lower thermal energy.
Hydrogen gas has the highest thermal value. However, it is also
not used as domestic fuel. You know, why do they do it? They do
so because it explodes when it is lit in the presence of air.
The following points are kept in mind while choosing fuel:
• They should not leave any ash or soot while burning.
• Do not pollute on burning and do not leave smoke and
poisonous gases etc.
• It can be easily obtained and stored.
• Its ignition temperature should be appropriate (not less or not
more), the heat at which the substance can catch fire. The
combustion temperature of petrol is low while the combustion
temperature of coal is high.
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Preservation of fuels
Coal and petroleum are mainly fossil fuels. The amount of fossil
fuels is limited, which will be exhausted in a hundred years. Notes
Therefore, to avoid such a situation, we should also use other
sources of energy. Some measures to conserve fossil fuels are:
1. Use the appropriate burner and stove while cooking.
2. Incomplete combustion of fuel should be stopped. Incomplete
combustion destroys the fuel and pollutes the air due to the
formation of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a toxic
gas and soot is also produced by incomplete combustion. The
burning of fuel with a blue flame indicates complete
combustion.
3. Extinguish gas burners when not in use.
4. Suitable utensils for cooking should be used such that cooking
in a pressure cooker saves fuel.
5. Must use renewable sources. Solar cooker should be used
whenever possible.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2

1. Make the following pairs:
Column A - Column B
(i) Wood (a) Fluid fuel
(ii) Kerosene (Kerosene) (b) Gas fuel

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(iii) LPG (c) 30 Kg joule/gm

(iv) Black gold (d) Solid fuel
Notes (v) Thermal value (e) Petroleum
2. Fill in the blanks with the help of appropriate words
(i) Any substance that produces energy on burning is
called……….
(Ii) Coal is called …… fuel.
3. Write down and select the correct fuel from the list below.
diesel, hydrogen gas, LPG, wood, kerosene
(i) Fuel used in tractors ........
(ii) Fuel used in domestic gas cylinders ........
(iii) Fuel with lowest heat value .....
(iv) Fuel with the highest heat value
(v) Fuel used in the stove ..........

3.4 CONBUSTION
You must have noticed that when we burn coal or wood in a
burner or a stove, we see that the coal becomes extreme heat
(burning lava) while burning. After some time we see that when
the burner cools down, the coal finishes and the ash remains.
What happens to the coal on burning?
Coal gets converted into carbon dioxide and ash on burning.
Therefore, on burning, the composition of the burning substance

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changes, that is, the burning substance changes into another

substance. This is called combustion. In this way, we can say
that combustion is a chemical change in which heat and light are
Notes
produced simultaneously and the composition of the burning
substance is changed. Burning of paper, petrol, dry leaves and
grass are some examples of combustion. Burning substances are
called flammable substances, such as petrol.
Those substances which do not burn are called inflammable
substances like water. All substances produce heat and light upon
burning. When we press the switch of a bulb, it starts illuminating.
We get light from it and if we touch that bulb, we find that the
illuminated bulb also produces heat. But do you think that the
fluorescence of an electric bulb is a combustion process?
Although, both heat and light are produced when the electric
bulb is fluorescent. However, this is not a combustion process,
as there is no chemical change. No new substance is formed in
it.
Conditions of combustion
Come, let us talk about some experiences of our daily life and
know the essential conditions of combustion.
• If we lit a matchstick and took it near the petrol, it immediately
catches fire and starts burning, but the same burning stick
does not bring change to any material like water, stone, glass
etc. These substances do not burn at all, because combustion
takes place only in the presence of flammable substances.

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• We often see that to lit a pressurized stove we take a burning

stick near to the kerosene oil filled in a bowl under the burner
to burn and the oil catches fire.
Notes
• We also see that in order to burn coal in the fireplace, first we
have to heat a lot by burning paper or cloth soaked with
kerosene, so that it attains heat from burning.
If the burning fire is covered, the air and the supply of oxygen is
consequently exhausted, which extinguishes the fire. In this way,
oxygen is also necessary for burning.
Now we can say that three conditions are necessary for
combustion, (Figure 3.6).
• Presence of flammable substance
• resumption of combustion heat
• Constant supply of combustion nutrients (usually air)
Just as three sides are required to form a triangle, in the absence
of these three conditions, combustion cannot take place, as shown
in the following diagram.
Fire extinguishers
We know that fire is highly used in our daily life. But sometimes
and especially when it gets out of control, it proves disastrous.
Therefore, it is necessary for us to be aware of the measures and
means of controlling fire.
• We know that small fires can be extinguished by covering
them with a lid.
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• When there is a fire in a person's clothes, they are covered

with thick blankets and rolled on the floor. We often see that
when a fire spreads over a large area, people extinguish the
Notes
fire by throwing water and sand. It is extinguished by covering
the fire or throwing water on it.
• Covering you with a lid or sand or throwing water on it does
not fulfill any one or more of the three conditions required for
combustion, which results in the fire being extinguished.
• You will also see that when the fire of coal or any other fire in
the pot is well covered with a lid, the fire does not get air and
the fire is extinguished.
Based on the above examples and their explanations, a device
was used to extinguish the fire. You must have seen fire
extinguishers installed at petrol pumps, big buildings, cinema
halls and other public places.
(A) The executive principle of fire extinguishers is based on
one of the following three conditions:
• cooling the fire to below its ignition temperature, or
• exhausting the supply of combustion nutrients, or
• cooling the fire as well as exhausting the air supply .
(B) There are many types of fire extinguishers according to the
type of fire that is used.
The table below gives the types of fire extinguishers, their
executive principles and the nature of the fire they control.

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Table 3.3: Type of fire extinguishing equipment, executive

principle and nature of fire extinguished

Notes Type of Executive Nature of

fire extinguisher principle fire extinguished
1. Water Cooling the material down All types of fires
to its ignition temperature except fire caused
by electrical and
flammable liquids
2. Soda acid Exhaust air supply all types of fires
other than electrical
and ignited liquids
fires
3. Foaming exhaust air supply ignited liquids fires
4. Carbon tetrachloride or pyrene electrical fire
exhausting air supply
The most commonly used fire extinguisher is soda-acid. The
percentage amount of carbon dioxide in the air is converted into
a combustion barrier by this fire extinguisher. How is it done? In
this fire, sodium bicarbonate solution and sulfuric acid are
separated from each other in a cylinder. When the cylinder is
overturned and slammed on the floor, the two react together in a
chemical reaction, resulting in carbon dioxide.
This increases the percentage of carbon dioxide already present
in the air by about 15% by releasing out of the carbon dioxide

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cylinder. In this way air combustion is not nutritious and the fire
is extinguished.
These types of fire extinguishers are placed in theaters, multi- Notes
storey buildings and large factories. These fire extinguishers are
not suitable for extinguishing fire by flammable substances.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.3

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The substance which does not burn when heated is
called .......
(ii) Two examples of substances which do not burn when
heated are .......... and ...........
(iii) The combustion temperature of kerosene is _____ from
the burning temperature of water and ______ from the
combustion temperature of petrol.
(iv) If the combustion temperature of a substance is
high, ______ quantity of heat is required to burn it.
(v) Combustion ....... changes.

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• Carbon is an element, it is a nonmetal.
• Carbon is found in both free and combined states in nature.
Wood coal, coke, and coal are different amorphous forms of
carbon and graphite and diamond are crystalline types of
carbon.
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• Diamond is colorless and extremely hard material and graphite

is non-metal which is a conductor of heat.

Notes
• Hydrocarbons are only compounds made of carbon and
hydrogen.
• Methane is also known as marsh gas.
• Butane is in liquid state due to pressure in LPG.
• The volume of carbon dioxide in air is about 0.03% and the
concentration of carbon dioxide is fixed in the air by
photosynthesis.
• When coal is burnt in a quantity of air, carbon monoxide is
produced. It is poisonous.
• Energy is released when fuel is burnt. Fuels can be classified
as solid, liquid and gas fuels.
• One can compare the energy efficiency of different fuels with
the energy obtained by burning each fuel.
• In the combustion process, light and heat are produced
simultaneously. In this, the substance is heated to its ignition
temperature. This reaction is very fast.
• The minimum temperature at which a substance starts burning
is called its combustible temperature.
• Those substances which burn fast are called flammable
substances and those which do not burn at all are called
inflammable substances.
• Three conditions are necessary for combustion - (1) presence

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of flammable material, (2) recovery of combustion heat, and

(3) continuous supply of good combustion nutrients.
• The tools developed to extinguish the fire are called fire Notes
extinguishers. The working principles of different types of fire
extinguishers operate on one or more of the following terms.
(1) Removing the flammable substance, (2) Stopping the
supply of air, and (3) Cooling the flammable substance below
the burning temperature.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Which is the 12th element found in the Earth's surface?
2. Why is carbon considered a wonder element?
3. Is carbon metal or nonmetal?
4. Which type of coal can absorb colored substances?
5. Which is the purest form of charcoal (coal)?
6. Why is coke considered a better fuel than coal?
7. Which type of carbon works in the filler of rubber tires?
8. Name four more elements that are found in coal other than
carbon.
9. Name two examples of crystalline types of carbon.
10. Compare the following properties of diamond and graphite:
(i) electrical conductivity
(ii) hardness
(iii) color
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11. Why is the methane called marsh gas?

12. How is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Notes constant?

13. How can you identify if carbon dioxide gas is present in the
atmosphere?

14. When coal is burnt in a fixed amount of air, then carbon

which oxides are made? 15. Define fuel and explain why
coal and petroleum are called fossil fuels?

16. What are Hydrocarbons? Name two hydrocarbons.

17. Which fuel has the highest thermal value - solid, liquid or
gas?

18. How are fuels classified? Give two examples of each.

19. What are the two characteristics of good fuel?

20. Why is hydrogen gas not used as domestic fuel?

21. What are the disadvantages of incomplete combustion of

fuel?

22. Describe the two ways in which you can conserve fuel?

23. Fill in the blanks with the help of appropriate words:

(i) Aqueous solution of carbon dioxide turns _____ litmus

red.

(ii) The perforated type of carbon is _____ .

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(iii) There are many types of kajal (carbon black) out of

which ______ is the purest form of coal.

(iv) _____ is obtained by heating in the absence of air. Notes

(v) _____ type of carbon is used to make shoe polish.

(vi) Diamond and graphite are two _____of carbon.

(vii) To burn diamond at high temperature is _____.

(viii) Liquid petroleum gas is a_____ .

(ix) Marsh gas is called_____gas.

(x) The first 4 hydrocarbons are ____(solid / liquid).

(xi) Solid carbon dioxide is called _____.

(xii) Petrol is obtained by ______ of petroleum.

(xiii) ____ is being used as fuel to run buses in Delhi.

(xiv) An ideal fuel should have a combustion temperature

of _____.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

3.1
1. (i) - d, (ii) - a, (iii) - d, (iv) - b, (v) - c
2. (i) kajal (ii) nonmetal
3. carbon monoxide

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3.2
1. (i) - d, (ii) - a, (iii) - c, (iv) -, (v) - c
Notes 2. (i) fuel (ii) solid
3. (i) diesel (ii) LNG, (iii) wood, (iv) hydrogen gas, (v)
Kerosene
3.3
1. (i) Flammable substance, (ii) Water and air, (iii) More,
less, (iv) more, (v) chemical

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Notes

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Changes In Daily Life
CLASS-VII

Notes

CLASS-VII
Lesson 4 Changes in Daily Life
Lesson 5 Motion and Force
Lesson 6 Ordinary Machines
Lesson 7 Pressure

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 Changes In Daily Life
CLASS-VII

Notes

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Changes In Daily Life
CLASS-VII

4 Notes

CHANGES IN DAILY LIFE

Nothing in the world is stable. Everything changes. Many changes

are around us, many are far from us. Some changes are readily
visible, and some do not appear soon. Some changes are by
ourselves and some changes are done by us humans. Some
changes can be beneficial for us, while some can also harm us.
Can any change be reversed so that the condition before the
change can be brought back? There are not many questions like
this, which should arise in anyone's mind and others like science
must surely arise in the mind.
Let us consider some aspects of change in this lesson by taking
some examples.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
• know about the various changes;
• Understanding the types of changes;

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• Differentiate between natural and unnatural changes; and

• Understand the utility of various changes in our daily lives.

Notes
4.1 CHANGES
Every day a new day rises, there is evening, there is night and
again the new day is out. This has been happening and will
continue to happen in the future. The celestial position of the sun
and the intensity of light (sunshine) vary every moment. The
potter takes the clay and makes the pot from it. The surface of
the clay has changed, when the pot is heated on the fires, the soil
becomes red and strong. The material of the pitcher may break
into pieces but it cannot take the form of clay again. Similarly,
when you light a candle, the wax melts slowly, the light keeps on
burning, the room becomes light, but gradually the candle
becomes smaller and after some time it extinguishes. Have you
ever wondered where the candle went? Can we bring it back?
These are all changes.

Fig. 4.1 Examples of Changes

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Similarly, let us take examples of some more changes which are

happening around us.

1. We soaked a seed of barley or a flower in a wet pot. A plant Notes

comes out of it in a few days. The plant gets bigger, fruits and
seeds are also formed from the flowers and flowers in it, but
after some time, no matter how much water or manure you
give it, it dries up and dies.

2. Ice is formed when the water becomes very cold. If the ice is
kept open outside, it becomes water again. If you keep this
water in a vessel and heat it on the fire, it becomes steam. If
this steam passes through a cold place, then it again becomes
water. In this way the nature of water, its temperature and its
state also changed.

3. Put a small piece of lime in a pot without any water. what will
happen? Pulses come in contact with water and heat comes
out of them.

4. Take warm milk in a glass. Taste the milk - a little sweet it

happens to be. Add a spoon of curd (jaman) to that milk and
mix it well. After two to three hours the curd is prepared. The
milk is like a thin liquid, curd is thick semi-liquid. The milk is
slightly sweet, the curd is sour. Change happened - two types
of - taste (sweet to sour - chemical change, liquid to semi-
physical change) and thickness! Apart from these, the
microorganisms acted on the curd (jaman) to make curd from
milk, so it is also a biological change.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.1

Are there any changes in the following conditions or events?
Notes Answer yes / no and put ( ) as the correct option.
(i) Making wheat by grinding flour. (Yes / No)
(ii) Increase of water in the river. (Yes / No)
(iii) Rain from the clouds. (Yes / No)
(iv) Open the door of the room and close it again. (Yes / No)
(v) Red color of blood. (Yes / No)
(vi) Warming of hands in rubbing of palms. (Yes / No)
(vii) Green color of leaves. (Yes / No)
(viii) Yellowing of leaf on drying. (Yes / No)
(ix) Visibility through the glass. (Yes / No)
(x) Corrosion in iron lying in wet soil. (Yes / No)

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CHANGES

We have read above about some of the innumerable changes that
surround us. What kind of changes are there, what are the
scientific aspects in them, let us understand. We can classify
changes in many ways. Figure 4.3.
(Biological changes that occur in organisms are both physical
and chemical types)
Natural and human-caused changes
(a) Any change that is happening on its own, that is, no human
or other organism has a natural change, such as:

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• Water from a river, pond or sea blows as a steam, becomes

a cloud of steam and rains as a drop of clouds.
• The eruption of a volcano and the release of fire or lava. Notes

• Earthquakes and buildings collapsing by them.

• Meteorite (falling stars) in the sky.
• Moon's fluctuations every day.
• Lunar eclipse or solar eclipse.
• The formation of a chick (baby) within the hen's egg.
• Falling of the fruit from the tree to the ground.
• When touching a fork, the hand automatically repels to
the back.
• The fragrance of a flower when it blooms.
The commonality among all the examples given above is that all
these are happening on their own or happened at any one time.
In all this, there was no deliberate work done by man.
Inadvertently, even after touching the hand with a fork, deliberate
work was not done to repel the hand, but it happened due to the
natural tendency of the body i.e. in the natural form. It is just like
the food eaten, digests in the stomach, digestion of food is a
natural change. If the same conditions are created outside the
body, then the same result will come out.
(b) Any change which is not by itself, but by human activity, is
called human-caused change, such as:

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• The conversion of clay into pot by potter.

• Build houses with brick, stone and lime.
Notes • To make tunnels and roads by cutting mountains.
• Extracting khoya from milk and making sweets by it.
• Making kites by adding bamboo sticks and paper in a
special way.
• Making jaggery, sugar or loaf sugar from sugarcane juice.
• To inflate the balloon.
• To make phulwadi and crackers using sulfur potash etc.
Recurring and Non-Recurring Changes
(a) Changes that occur repeatedly after a certain time or interval
are called recurring changes. You can predict such changes.
Just like 14 days after every Amavasya, full moon is there
and 14 days after that Amavasya comes and will always
continue. See some examples of these:
• The seasons change - monsoon after summer, autumn
after monsoon, then pre-winter, then winter, then spring
and summer again.
• The pendulum of the clock moves right-left at the
specified time. And like this, the swing on the tree goes
back and forth.
• The heartbeat continues to happen continuously.
• Many birds come to India every year in winter and go
back as soon as winter ends. This influx continues.

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(b) Non-recurring changes, on the contrary, are those that can

hppen at times such as earthquakes. Let us take some
examples of these.
Notes
• Leaves falling from the tree rust in iron and candles
burning and end are examples of non-recurring changes.
Are these recurring changes?
You eat food, is chewing food in the mouth a recurring change?
No, neither does it chew the same bite every time, nor do it only
after a regular time.
Many functions of the body occur daily, such as the formation of
some chemicals, which make us sleep at almost the same time
every day.
Reversible and irreversible changes
(a) Reversible or reversible changes are those changes which
come back to the first stage when circumstances change.
These can also be called reversible changes. Let's take some
examples of these:
• Ice can be made by cooling the water, ice becomes water
when it is heated, steam is formed when the water is boiled,
water can be formed again when the steam is cooled.
• The wax can be melted to form a candle, the same candle
can be melted to make wax again.
• When you pull the rubber of a slingshot it becomes long,
as soon as you stop pulling it, it becomes small again.
Give examples of any other two changes that can be reversed.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 77

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 Changes in Daily Life
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(b) Irreversible or non-reversible changes are those changes

which cannot be brought back to the former state if
circumstances change. These are also called non-reversible
Notes
changes. Let's take some examples of these:

• burning candle turns such, that we cannot bring the same

original candle back in any way.

• In the process of turning milk into curd, the sweetness

of milk turns into sourness of curd. Can you make milk
back from curd in any way? No. This is an irreversible
change.

• Sowing seed makes a plant, the same plant cannot be

turned into a seed.

• While boiling the hen's egg it turns hard. It cannot be

changed back into thin yolk and whitewash.

You write two other changes that cannot be reversed.

Think

^^jfgeu /kek izse dk] er rksMks pVdk;]

VwVs ls fiQj uk tqM+s] tqM+s xkaB iM+ tk;A
Tell

What is the change between breaking the thread and then joining
it?

78 Vijnana, Level-C
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Physical and chemical changes

(a) Physical changes: For example, whenever the appearance
of an object changes but the substance remains the same as
Notes
it was before, this change is called physical change. After
cooling the water, its external form changes from liquid to
solid state, but still it is water. Let's take some more examples
of physical change:
(i) Tear the paper into 2, 4 or 8 pieces, even though we cannot
make the same type of paper again with those pieces, still
the same basic material in each piece is still paper.
(ii) You can make a shirt, pajama or a handkerchief by
cutting the cloth and stitching it. The appearance of the
fabric may have changed, but in every form, the cloth is
still there.
(iii) Take a little water in a bowl and dissolve one teaspoon
of salt in it. Leave it in the sun for a few days, the water
will blow away and the salt will again come in the form
of particles. The basic thing i.e. salt is still the same.
Dissolving salt in water is a physical change.
(b) Chemical Changes: Conversely, when the appearance of an
object changes or does not change, but the substance changes,
that change is called chemical change. For example, making
curd by milk, the sweetness of milk (lactose sugars) turns
into sourness (lactic acid). These two chemicals are different
types so it is a chemical change. Let us take some more
examples of chemical changes:

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 79

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 Changes in Daily Life
CLASS-VII

(1) In the burning of a candle, the wax melts and burns, and
gases like ( ) are dissolved in the air. It is also a chemical
change.
Notes

Fig. 4.2 Burning candle

(2) There is rust in the iron of the nail lying in the soil. Rust
is different from iron.

Fig. 4.3 Rusted Nail

(3) Raw mango which is sour (acidic), after keeping it in

the sail for a few days it becomes soft and sweet (sugary).
(4) Cut the apple, potato or eggplant in the middle and leave
it open . Within a few hours the chopped white surface
becomes brownish black.

Fig. 4.4 Sliced apple

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(5) Take a little filtered (transparent) lime water in a glass,

blow a tube in it, it becomes milky; its chemical
substance has changed.
Notes

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.2

1. Both the seedlings and the child grow in size. What are the
different changes in it:
(i) Physical or chemical
(ii) Reversible or non-reversible
(iii) Natural or man-made
2. The child drinks milk, eats fruits and eats pulses, by which
blood, bones, muscles etc. gets developed. Explain what are
the different changes in it :
(i) Physical chemical
(ii) Reversible or non-reversible
(iii) Natural or human-caused

4.3 BIOLOGICAL CHANGES

As mentioned above, the plant produced from the seed made
green leaves, when it grew big red-yellow-blue flowers grew on
them and then grew fruit. Plant food was made up of water and
salts from the earth and carbon dioxide gas taken from the air.
But do not know how many types of substances have been made
up in the plant. The formation of such substances can occur only
in living plants. Similarly, the development of bones, blood etc.
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 81
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CLASS-VII

from milk or food can happen only in a living body, a human

cannot make it from life-less objects. Such changes occur only
in organisms and are called biological changes. Many biological
Notes
changes are physical changes and most are chemical changes.
Slow and Rapid Change
Slow and rapid change is comparable in a way. For example, suppose
a human, an airplane, a rail and a horse are running or flying with
their full velocity. Now you think which one of these is changing its
location the fastest? Whose speed is less than that? Who will be in
third place? And who is the slowest among them?
Now you can easily guess which a re slow and rapid changes -
Lets take another example, light a sparkler and a candle of equal
length at the same time. Both will start burning, chemical changes
are also taking place in both. Explain, which chemical change is
most rapid? Surely your answer will be sparkling. Similarly, now
you do an activity and see how the change is.
Good Changes or Bad Changes!
Calling the changes good or bad varies from different point of
views. As we burn crackers, flower pots, sparklers on the night
of Diwali, the children becomes happy, everyone's heart gets
swayed, the joy in the release of firecrackers is a change that
feels good. But the same change in which the smoke and
poisonous gases containing the pollutants which are polluting
the air will be called bad. In this way, if the food items like lentils,
chapatis and vegetables are left unnoticed it gets rot, which are

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often thrown away. This change due to the effect of bacteria etc.
will be called undesirable 'bad' change. But when the dung and
leaves are pressed into the pit it becomes compost by the effect
Notes
of these bacteria, then that change will be called a desirable
change, ie good. The forests are cut down, fields or barns are
built or houses are built for the people to live, this is a kind of
desirable / good change for humans. But the change in the form
of destruction of trees and forests is also bad. The houses of
birds and animals are destroyed, the balance of nature is disturbed,
the weather is affected, etc. It mainly depends on how you
understand..
Can any change be stopped
You wonder if we can stop the sun rising and setting? No, it is
wrong to think. Likewise, can milk spoilage be prevented? Yes,
it can be prevented. It can be prevented from spoiling by keeping
it in the cold or by freezing it as ice. Can burning wood or burning
candles be prevented from burning? Certainly! How, you tell
yourself.
• Can rust be prevented from iron nail?
Yes, grease it well, grease it with Vaseline and paint it over it.
Iron will lose contact with oxygen in air and will not rust.
• Can aging be prevented?
No, but changes in old age can be avoided a little with
good food, prevention of diseases, proper exercise and
relaxation etc.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 83

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Interaction in changes
You must have noticed that when we add water on non-
Notes extinguished lime, there is a chemical reaction in it. Calcium
oxide (lime) interacts with water which results in calcium hyoxide
(lime water). Similarly, when the bird flies in the air, the wings
pushes the air but the wind resists it and the bird gets momentum.
The bird's body and air interact while flying. While filling the
water by pulling the rope from the well, it is seen that the rubbing
of the rope is marked on the sides of the well's stone. The rope
gets rubbed, but the stone also get rubbed slowly, then it is said
that in this instance of change, there is an interaction between
the stone and the rope.

ACTIVITY 4.1
What you need to do: dissolve water in sugar.
How to do it: Take two glasses and fill each one with half a
glass of water. Now put one tablespoon of sugar in both. The
sugar will sit down. It will also start to dissolve a bit. Shortly
thereafter, dissolve sugar in a glass by stirring with a spoon.
Did sugar dissolve in this glass faster than other glass? Yes of
course What did we do in this? We intensified the interaction
between water and sugar so it got dissolved quickly.
Similarly, take extra cold water in one glass and hot in another.
Add equal quantity of sugar in both and leave it as is.
See in which (in cold or hot) sugar dissolves quickly and why?

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Energy in changes
You should also know that energy is used in changes. Such as:
(i) Energy was used to make pieces of paper. Notes
(ii) Energy is used in boiling the water to make steam or cooling
it for freezing the ice .
(iii) Trees grow, animals and birds grow older than their children,
energy is used in it.
(iv) Energy is used to stir the sugar faster in the water with the
spoon to get it dissolved.
(v) While sweating when the air flows, it provides coolness, in
this the energy is used in it, etc.
Can you count such other changes in which the direct release or
use of energy is shown.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.3

Take a wet cloth (such as a handkerchief):
1. Soak in the sun
2. Dry it in the shade,
3. Dry it gently with your hands in the sun.
Tell me what is the change from wet to dry, physical or
chemical? Explain that:
i. Under which circumstances will wet handkerchief dry at
the slowest speed? And
ii. Under what circumstances will the wet handkerchief dry
first (fastest)?
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 85
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4. Explain which of the following changes are biological and

which are non-biological:

Notes (i) Increasing the size of a small crystal in a saturated

(extremely thick) sugar solution
(ii) Yeast making the dough rise (hint: it contains the action
of bacteria)
(iii) The chapati kept on the heat will turn out fluffy.
(iv) On chewing boiled rice, its faded taste changes to a bit
sweet.
(v) On rainy days, sometimes sprouts come out of the
potatoes.

4.4 DESTRUCTIVE NATURAL CHANGES

You have read about many types of changes. Some we can control,
but some natural changes are such that we have no control on
them. Such natural changes, which cause massive destruction,
are called destructive natural changes. Have you ever wondered
why drought happens? Why do the floods come? How does a
cyclone become a storm? How does an earthquake occur? What
does a bursting volcano look like? Let's get to know about these
devastating natural changes.
Drought
As is clear from the name itself, drought occurs when there is no
rainfall in an area or much less than normal. The water of rivers
and ponds dries up, the land dries up and starts cracking.

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Notes

Fig. 4.5 Drought

Causes: The main causes of drought are less rainfall or drouth,

large scale cutting of trees (forest erosion) for road construction,
building construction or industry.
What is the result: The crop gets dried up and destroyed, humans
and animals start dying due to the lack of water, starvation starts
spreading and the fertile soil gets drying and cracking up.
Some natural changes can be disastrous such as drought, flood,
cyclone, storm, earthquake, volcano etc.

ACTIVITY 4.2
Get information about previous droughts which happened.
Talk to your elders at your home and get information about
drought happened in previous years. Also, try to find out what
measures people used to avoid drought in the olden days?
Today we are again adopting the ancient technique of rainwater
harvesting to avoid drought. This means collecting rainwater
and using it in your home and fields when needed.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 87

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Floods
There are many areas in our country where floods occur every
year. These are mainly states like Bihar, Assam, West Bengal,
Notes
and Uttar Pradesh etc. When the water in the river rises so much
that its banks become weak and the water flows out with a strong
current, it is called a flood.

Fig. 4.6 Flood scene

There are many reasons for floods, the main ones being excess
rain and cutting of trees. Because of trees the soil's ability to
absorb water increases.
What are the consequences of flood?
Flooding all around causes the damaging of crops, collapsing of
houses and drowning which leads to the loss of life of both
humans and animals, and the outbreak of diseases like cholera
increases.
How to prevent floods?
Large dams are built on the rivers to prevent excess water from
rain. When required, water is released slowly in controlled
quantities, so that the areas which are below do not get flooded.

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However, if a flood is expected, people are warned and taken to

safer places. Rehabilitation programs are also being encouraged.

Notes

Fig. 4.7 Dam on rivers

Cyclonic
A cyclone is a severe storm that moves from sea to coast. When
the air above the sea rises up on heating, it rotates with the rotation
of the earth. That is why it is called a cyclone. Its speed can be up

Fig. 4.8 Cyclone

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 89

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 Changes in Daily Life
CLASS-VII

to 100 km per hour. There is a cool zone in the middle of the

storm, which is called Hurricane Axis. Coastal states in our
country like West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
Notes
etc. are affected every year by this storm.

Impact:
Moving towards the coast, the storm uproots trees coming in the
way, electric poles, houses and buildings etc. In the coastal
areas, there is a noticeable flood of saltwater from the sea,
which destroys the fertility and, there is a huge loss of life and
property.

Earthquake
Our country is so vast that in some places there are droughts,
others there are floods, and even earthquakes are there. You all
must have heard about the massive earthquake in Ahmedabad

Fig. 4.9 Earthquake devastation

--
90
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Changes in Daily Life
CLASS-VII

on 26 January 2001. If not, find out about it at home or by talking

to your teacher.
Why does an earthquake occur?
Notes
The upper surface of the Earth is weak at some places. When an
earthquake occurs, the earth rises above from these weak places
and gets drowned elsewhere. It will be clear from the picture
given below.
The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the Richter scale
from 1 (less) to 10 (more). This measuring instrument is called
seismograph.
Impact
Homes and buildings collapse, roads, bridges, etc. are broken,
electric poles fall, water pipes break. Also, there is a massive
loss of life and property.
Volcano:
You must have heard about the volcano, but may not have seen
it. That is because there is no active volcano in our country. But

Fig. 4.12 Volcano

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 91

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 Changes in Daily Life
CLASS-VII
on hearing the name of the volcano, the image of a mountain
spewing fire and lava comes to mind.
Notes What is a volcano?
When the Earth bursts and the hot, molten lava and gas comes
out, it is called a volcano. There are hot, molten stones in the
center of the Earth which is called as magma. Wherever the upper
surface of the Earth is weak, this magma exits with great pressure.
49r-
~~
~

,..__

ACTIVITY 4.3
What you need to do: Try to make a volcano.
What you need: plasticine or plaster of Paris, cotton, color,
board
How to do the: With the help of plasticine or plaster of Paris,
make a flat shape on the board.
Make a hole at its crest.
Paint the red / orange / black color over the cotton wool and
paste it on the hole to give the impression of lava and smoke
coming out.
Conclusion: This is how the model of the volcano was
prepared.
Effects
• Air pollution is increased by carbon dioxide and other gases
released from the volcano. At the same time, global warming
I also increases.
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• When sulfur dioxide gas mixes with vapor in the air, acid rain
occurs.

• When lava cools and freezes, the soil that forms as a result of Notes
it is very fertile, such as the black soil of the southern plateau
in India.

Natural Disaster Management

You have yet to read how destructive nature can sometimes

be and in such situations there is a huge loss of life and property.
When disaster occurs, immediate relief is provided to the people.
A crisis management group has been formed by the government,
which oversees these situations. Relief operations are started
with the help of local institutions. It takes a lot of money and
other resources to rehabilitate people and rebuild buildings.
People from all parts of the country send food, money, clothes,
bedding, blankets, tents, medicines, etc. to the victims. Debris
removal and reconstruction of fallen buildings is done at a rapid
pace so that the affected people can lead a normal life as soon as
possible.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.4

1. What are destructive natural changes? Give two examples.

2. Give any two measures for flood prevention.

3. Describe any two harmful effects of volcanoes.

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WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

Notes
• Nothing is stable around us. A change in the form / shape,
color / position etc. of an object is called a change.
• Changes can be classified into the main six types of natural
and man-made, recurring and non-recurring, reversible and
irreversible, physical and chemical, dense and rapid,
biological and good or bad natural changes.
• Energy is required for change.
• Droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes and volcanoes etc.
are destructive natural changes.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. State whether the following is true or false:
(i) There is no role of forest planting in the occurrence of
drought and floods. ( )
(ii) In the middle of a cyclone there is a cool zone. ( )
(iii) Flooding can be prevented by building dams on rivers. ( )
(iv) In an earthquake, some parts of the earth rises up. ( )
(v) Air pollution increases when volcanoes erupt. ( )
2. To avoid drought
Suggest two measures to be taken in your home or village. ( )
3. Describe with the picture how a cyclone is formed. ( )

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4. Describe the good and bad effects of volcanic eruption. ( )

5. How will you help your affected people in times of natural
disaster? ( ) Notes

6. How does air pollution increase when a volcano erupts? ( )

7. Below are some situations described whether that are changes
or not:
(i) While reading this book you are looking from one word
to another and second to third.
(a) Is this a change? Yes / no
(b) If there is a change then which is the object? Is it
words or eyes
(ii) Is the switching on and off of light bulbs a change? Yes
/ No
(iii) Is there a change in picking up the glass on the table and
keeping it exactly in the same place? Yes / no
(iv) Is there a change by lifting the glass from one side of
the table and placing it on the other side? Yes / no

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

4.1
1. (i) Yes, (ii) No, (iii) Yes, (iv) No, (v) Yes, (vi) Yes,
(vii) No (viii) Yes, (ix) No, ( x) Yes

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4.2
1. (i) Chemical, (ii) Non-reversible, (iii) Natural
Notes 2. (i) Chemical, (ii) Non-reversible, (iii) Natural
4.3
1. (i) Inorganic, (ii) Biological, (iii) Abiotic (iv) Biological,
(v) Biological
4.4
1. Natural changes that cause loss of life and property.
Floods, volcanoes, cyclones, droughts, earthquakes (any
two)
2. Dams on rivers, planting trees etc.
3. Destruction of public goods, destruction of crops, etc.

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Notes

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 97

Motion And Force
CLASS-VII

5 Notes

MOTION AND FORCE

Look around yourself. Birds flying in the sky, children running

in the park, the water flowing in the canal, the moving pendulum
of the clock, the fan rotating on the roof - there are many other
things that we say are moving. What is this 'moving' called?
Talking about the trees standing on the side of the road, the stones
lying in the park and the school building, we say that they are
stable, that is, they are not moving. Why do we say this?
Moving means 'motion' which is very important for life. Just
think, if all the movement stops in your school, if we stop, what
will happen?
The question is that what is the main cause of motion? How does
the speed of an object change? Regulation of speed is according
to which principles.
Come, in this lesson we will read about speed, its type and its
cause. Apart from this, we will also study the effect of force on
motion and the stopping force i.e. friction.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 97

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CLASS-VII

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Notes
• Being able to differentiate the different kinds of movements
happening around you;
• Understand the movement and motion;
• Understand mass and weight; and
• Understand the force of friction.

5.1 REST AND MOTION

When you walk from home to the other place, your position
changes with the time. The change in the position of the object
with time is called motion.

... -- - - '::'• ':" -

..
, ,~~

•• ~~- -
. .
... .J
"
Fig. 5.1 Some moving objects

--
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Motion and Force
CLASS-VII

Now think about the tree standing on the side of the road. Where
it was yesterday, it is still there today. Its position does not change
with time, so it is in a state of rest.
Notes
So objects that do not change their position over time are said to
be at rest.
Types of motion
Think about the motions shown in the following picture. Are all
these movements of the same type?
(1) Butterfly flying
(2) Ball falling from a height
(3) Children slipping on the plane strip
(4) Spinning top
(5) Swinging children in mary go-round
(6) Children swinging in a swing
Let us analyze these motions and classify them on that basis:
Butterfly flying goes on an irregular path, moving even when
the direction of its movement changes. This type of motion is
called random motion.
Ball falling from a height moves in a straight line, at any moment
all its particles are found moving in the same direction. This type
of motion is called linear motion. Similarly, the motion of a child
sliding on a plane bar is also an example of linear motion.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 99

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 Motion and Force
CLASS-VII
The motion of the spinning top is rotary motion, in which the
spinning top rotates in a circular form around its own orbit.
Notes Children in the mary go-round, move around an axis on a
circular path. This type of motion is called circular motion.
The swinging child repeatedly moves around a midpoint. Such
motion is called oscillation motion.
Many times there is also motion of some objects, which
have more than one type of movement simultaneously. For
example, the wheel of a car rotates on its axis and also moves
forward, which means its speed is linear motion and rotary motion
too.
~-I-
~s
~

ACTIVITY 5.1
What you need to do: to study different types of motions
What you need: a small stone, thread, copy and pan
(i) First, watch the stone three to four times, throwing from
different heights.
(ii) Then tie the stone with a thread and spin it round.
(iii) Now tie the stone with a thread and hang it with a nail and
remove one side and leave it. Then pay attention to its
speed.
(iv) Similarly, observe the speed of the nib of a pen while
writing the observation note in the copy.
I
100 Vijnana, Level-C
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What did you see:

(i) The motion of the stone in the first position is linear motion.
(ii) In the second case, the stone is moving on the circular path. Notes
(iii) The motion of the stone in the third position is the
oscillation motion.
(iv) While the direction of the pen's nib changes randomly.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.1

1. Which of the following objects are moving and which are at
rest?
(a) Football immediately after kicking.
(b) Needles of a running clock.
(c) Blackboard in your class.
(d) Planets of the solar-system.
2. The following motions are examples of what type of motion?
(a) The movement of the player playing hockey in the
playground. _____
(b) The movement of the swinging child. _____
(c) The movement of a man climbing stairs. _____
(d) The movement of the Earth revolving around the Sun._____
Special terms used to describe motion.
Distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
(A) Distance: When we talk of moving objects, we say that it
changes its position over time. The length of the path that a
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 101
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 Motion and Force
CLASS-VII

body moves from one place to another is called the distance

traveled by that body. For example, assuming you walk in a
straight line to a tree standing 100 meters away from your
Notes
orbit and return 20 meters on the same path, the total distance
you walked is 120 meters.
(B) Displacement: We have just given the definition of distance.
By merely giving a description of the distance of an object
from a reference point, the actual position of that object is
not known.
Let us understand this with an example. Suppose you tell
your friend that if he walks to your house exactly 2 km from
here, can he really reach your house? No, because it is 2 km
Distance can be in any direction.
But if you tell your friend that he can reach your house by
walking 2 km west, then he will definitely reach the right
place. Reflecting on the example given in terms of distance,
you will find that because you have returned 20 meters
towards the 100 meter circle, your displacement from the
starting point is 80 meters. Because you have also described
the right direction in which direction it is with distance.

ACTIVITY 5.2 l
What you need to do: Understand the difference between
moving distance and displacement.
What you need: Meter Scale, graph paper, pea or gram, scale,
pencil.
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How to do you:
1. Put a mark (A) on the paper. Put gram seed on A.
2. Stop the grain A from sliding to the point B at a distance of Notes

12cm towards the east.

3. Mix A and B.
4. Stop the grain by sliding it 5 cm from point B to point B in
the north direction.
5. Now find the displacement of the grain and the distance
traveled by it.
What did you see:
1. Distance = AB + BC = 12cm + 5cm = 17 cm
2. Expansion = AC = 13cm in North-East direction.
(C) Speed: We sometimes need to compare the speed of moving
objects. Comparing the movements of the objects given in
the picture, we find that the snail moves very slowly and the

Fig. 5.2 Different speeds

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara

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103
 Motion and Force
CLASS-VII

airplane is very fast. In an hour, the snail barely covers a

distance of 0.05 km while the airplane goes more than 200
km. This distance traveled by the object in a single time is
Notes
called its speed and helps us to compare the speed of the
objects.
If the distance is measured in meters (m) and the time in
seconds (s), the unit of speed is meter / second (m / s) i.e.
meter per second.
(D) Velocity: By the speed of an object it is known how fast the
object is moving. But to know where she will reach after a
certain time, it is also necessary to know the direction of her
walking. The amount that tells how fast an object moves in
a given direction is called the velocity of that object.
The unit of displacement is the meter and the second of time.
Therefore the unit of velocity is meters per second (m / s).
(E) Acceleration: When we travel by bus does the movement
of the bus remain the same throughout the duration of
motion? You know that it is not so. It starts moving at rest
and then gradually increases its speed. When the path is
obstructed, its speed is reduced and when the next bus stand
comes, the bus slowly slows down and stops. If the speed
remains the same, even if the direction of motion changes,
the velocity changes. The change in velocity of an object in
unit time is called acceleration.
The unit of velocity is meter per second (ms1) and the second
(s) of time. Hence the unit of acceleration is (ms2).
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.2

1. Fill in the blanks:
Notes
(i) The distance traveled by an object is _____ of its travel
path.
(ii) To tell the displacement of the object it is necessary to
tell both the _______ of the movement moved by it.
(iii) If the speed of the object is 30 km If hourly, it covers a
distance of _____ km in an hour.
(iv) If the velocity of the object is changing, then _____ is
happening in it.
2. What is the normal unit of speed?
3. What is the normal unit of acceleration?

5.2 REASON FOR MOTION-CHANGE : FORCE

You may have noticed that a stone lying on the side of the road
does not change its place until someone pushes or drags it away.
Similarly, the motion or the direction of movement of a moving
object also cannot change by itself. To change the speed or
velocity of an object, it has to be pushed or dragged . This stretch,
which is applied on an object, is called force.
The laws of motion
People knew for a long time about the effect of force on motion.
But the effect of force in motion was studied in detail by the
great English scientist Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and in his study
presented the result in three rules.
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(1) Newton's first law of motion

Let's begin by understanding the rules with some activities:
Notes

ACTIVITY 5.3
What you need to do: Observe that the stationary object has
a tendency to remain stable.
What you need: A thick smooth card, a glass of glass, a coin.
How to do this:
1. Put the glass on the table, cover its mouth with the card
and place the coin in the middle over the card.
2. Flick the card.
You will see that: The coin falls into the glass. Have you
wondered why this happened? The coin was held steady above
the card. Because no force was applied on it, it remained fixed
in its place and fell into the glass due to the card being removed
from the bottom.

ACTIVITY 5.4 I
What you have to do: It is to see that the moving object has a
tendency to move.
What you need: shoe case, ball,
How to do it:
1. Remove the lid of the shoe box. Also remove another

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cardboard from the width side. Place the ball along the wall
on the other side of the box.
2. Push the box at one end of the table, so that the ball remains Notes
adjacent to the wall opposite the motion.
3. Stop the box from moving instantly.
What did you see: As soon as the cardboard box stops, the
ball starts moving and comes out from the open side.
Did you wonder why this happened?
When the box was moving, the ball inside it was moving at
the same speed. Even after stopping the box, the ball kept inside
it keeps moving at its earlier velocity, because no force has
been applied on it to stop it from moving.
The conclusion of the above mentioned activities can be
understood as Newton's first law. According to this rule, "If an
object is stationary, it will remain stationary and if an object is
moving, it will move until an external unbalanced force is applied
on it".
To understand the meaning of unbalanced force, let us consider
the condition of the towing of the tug of war competition. If both
the teams are pulling it in exert equal force, the total force applied
on the rope will be zero and the rope will remain in balance. But
if the force of one team is more than the other, then this additional
force will be called unbalanced force and due to this the towing
will be pulled towards that team.

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(2) Newton's second law of motion

Two activities will also help in understanding this rule. If equal
Notes force is applied to two objects of different mass, then why is
there a difference in the acceleration produced in them?

e
►,..2
·J-,;
ACTIVITY 5.5
What you need to do: Study Newton's second law of motion.
What you need: For this, take a cricket ball (heavy) and a
tennis ball (light).
How do you do: Place both balls on the ground nearby and
with the help of a wiper or a stick, push them together and see
which ball runs fast and keeps going for long.
You will see that: The tennis ball runs faster and lasts longer.
This leads to the conclusion that if equal force is applied to
two objects, the acceleration produced in them is inversely
proportional to their mass.
e
►••• 2
·J-,;

ACTIVITY 5.6
What you have to do: What will be the effect on the
acceleration of an object when it changes the magnitude of the
force applied on it?
What you need: Any ball, viper
How you have to do :
1. Place the ball on the floor.

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2. Push him lightly by the wiper and see how far the ball stops.
3. Again push the ball in the same place and see how far the
ball stops. Notes

You will see that: The ball stops further when pushed harder,
because it has more acceleration. From this we can conclude
that the acceleration of an object is proportional to the force
exerted on it.
The conclusions of the above activities can only be called
Newton's second law of motion. Hence one can conclude from
this rule that the force exerted on the body is equal to the mass of
the body and the product of the acceleration generated in the
body by the force. That is:
force mass acceleration
the unit of force is Newton (N). 1 Newton force is the force
which, when applied to a body of 1kg mass, produces an
acceleration of 1ms-2. To experience the magnitude of the IN
force, put a weight of 100b on your palm and experience the
force due to it. This is approximately equal to 1N force.
(3) Newton's third law of motion
Consider the situation shown in Figure 5.3. If you jump from the
boat standing in the river, then in which direction is the boat
getting pushed? Is it on the opposite side of the coast? Have you
wondered why this happens? They can be interpreted according
to Newton's third law of motion. According to this law, "For

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=- -- -a
Fig. 5.3 Newton's Third Law of Motion
Notes

every action there is an equal and opposite reaction ". If you

force the boat into the water and push it into the water, the boat
forces you with the same force.

ACTIVITY 5.7
What you need to do: Study the third law of motion by balloon
rocket.
What you need: a balloon, thread, two nails, cello tape, paper
tube.
How to do you:
1. Push the nails on opposite walls of the room.
2. Tie one end of the thread to a nail.
3. Remove the thread from the tube and tie its other end on
the second funnel.
4. After inflating the balloon, close its mouth and hold it firmly
with the help of paper tape and stick it firmly with a paper
tube.
5. Now release the balloon so that air comes out from its mouth
slowly.

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What did you see: The balloon on the thread starts moving in
the opposite direction in the direction in which the air comes
out of the balloon. From this you can naturally conclude that
Notes
every action has the same reaction in the opposite direction.
Freely falling objects
If an object is lifted off the floor and left, it always falls
downwards. Have you thought about why this happens? Seeing
the apple falling from the tree, when Newton wondered why the
apple fell from the tree, he came to the conclusion that it is because
the earth pulls it towards him. This force of the earth is called the
force of gravity.
When an object exerts force, acceleration is produced in it. This
acceleration in a falling object due to the gravitational force of
the Earth is called gravitational acceleration. It is denoted by 'g'
and its value is 9.8ms-2. That is, the velocity of an object freely
falling towards the Earth increases to 9.8 meters per second in 1
second. You might be surprised to know that this value of 'g'
does not depend on the mass of air. A heavy object also falls
below the same acceleration as an object lighter than the
acceleration. This is the reason that if you drop an iron ball and a
wooden ball from any height together, they will come together
and hit the earth.
Mass and Weight
The mass and weight of an object are two different quantities.
The mass of the object means the amount of material from which
that object is made. The mass of one pot of brass is 2kg, which
means that the pot has 2kg brass.
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The weight of an object is the force with which the earth pulls
the object towards it. One unit of weight is Newton and the other
is kilogram weight (kg wt).
Notes
1kg wt = 9.8 newtons.
We can say that the weight of pot is 2 kg wt or 4.9 newtons.
Weights and mass have the following relationship:
mass gravitation acceleration
We measure the weight with the spring balance and the mass
with the physical balance. The mass of an object does not change
by moving it from one place to another, but its weight can change.
This is because the value of 'g' varies at different places. The
weight of an object on the moon that is 60kg on Earth will only
be 10kg because the value of gravitational acceleration on the
moon is 1/6 of that of the Earth.

5.4 FRICTION FORCE

Let us do an activity to understand friction.

ACTIVITY 5.8
What you have to do: See that the force of friction depends
on the nature of the surface.
What you need: 30 () long scale of wood, two thick books,
used torch battery or glass, a half of thick cloth, a half Meter
long ten centimeter wide piece.

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How do you do:

1. Put one end of the scale on the books and make a flat plane.
2. Make a mark on the inner plane at a distance of about 20 () Notes

from the lower end.

3. Now leave the battery (or marbles) on the trail so that it
comes down rolling on the floor.
4. See how far it drops and stops on the table. Put a mark
there.
5. Now, spread the cloth on the table, and roll the battery again
with the same mark. Now it rolls over the fabric Wherever
it stops, mark it again.
What you noticed: The battery on the cloth goes a short
distance and on the empty table goes a long distance.
From this we can conclude that the friction force values are
different for different surfaces.
Friction has its benefits as well as disadvantages. Let us know in
more detail the benefits and disadvantages of friction.
Benefits of friction
1. If there was no friction, it would be difficult for us to walk.
Can you walk easily on smooth floors or on moss stones?
2. In the absence of friction, it becomes difficult to stop a moving
object, because the force of friction only stops it by opposing
the motion of the moving object.

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3. It is difficult to hold an object without friction. The force

between the object and fingers is helpful in holding that object.

Notes 4. Would you burn matchsticks without friction? The primitive

man also lit the fire by friction between the two flint stones.
5. Due to friction between the rim and brake pads of the cycle
wheel, your cycle stops.
Disadvantages of friction
1. Many parts of the machines move by rubbing against each
other. Due to friction they are worn out and the lifespan of the
machine decreases.
2. Objects become hot due to friction and due to this, a lot of
energy is lost. As a result the efficiency of the machines
decreases.
Machines need to reduce friction to avoid these losses. Oil is
used for this in machines like sewing machines and in machines
like bicycles, hair bearings or roller bearings are used.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.3

1. Which law of motion applies in the following situations?
(a) The coin lying on the road remains there until someone
removes it.
(b) A woman carrying a pitcher filled with water puts the
same amount of force on the pitcher as the pitcher puts
on her head.
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(c) When a toy car and a real car are pushed with equal force,
the toy car has more acceleration.
2. Fill in the blanks by choosing the appropriate word from the Notes
given words:
(a) Your mass on the moon _____ will be(equal to, greater
than, Less)
(b) Your weight on the moon compared to your weight on
earth _____ will be. (Equal, more or less)
(c) The gravitational acceleration value of the Earth is _____
. ()
(d) Oil is added to the machine ______ to reduce. (Friction,
force, gravitational force)

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

The object whose position changes with time, this object moving
and whose position does not change with time is called static.
• The motion of an object moving along a linear path is called
linear motion.
• If the object keeps changing direction of motion with time, its
speed is called random motion.
• Like spinning top, the object rotates round and round, its
motion is called rotational motion.
• If the object moves around a midpoint like a swing, its motion
is called oscillating motion.
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• The distance traveled by an object is the length of the path on

which it moves from the initial position to the final position.
The unit of distance is a meter.
Notes
• Displacement is the minimum distance between the initial and
final positions of the object. Its unit is also a meter.
• The distance traveled in unit time is called speed. The
displacement occurring in unit time is called velocity. The
units of both are meters per second or ms-2.
• The change in velocity of an object in unit time is called
acceleration. Its unit is ms-2.
• The push or pull force on the object is called force.
• Newton's first law of motion states that the state of motion or
stop of an object cannot change unless an unbalanced force is
applied to it.
• Force mass acceleration according to Newton's second law
• Newton's third law of motion states that every action has the
same reaction in the opposite direction.
• Each freely falling object comes down due to the gravitational
force of the earth and produces an acceleration of 9.8ms-2.
• As long as one surface slips on the other surface, the force
of friction between them to resist their motion becomes
dominant.
• Friction has its benefits as well as disadvantages.

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TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Give two examples of moving and stationary objects.
Notes
2. What are the different types of motion? Give an example of
each.
3. You take a full circle of circle with circle 105m. What is
your displacement and the distance you run?
4. A boy runs 50m in 10s. Explain its trick.
5. Give the definition of acceleration. Also tell its unit.
6. What is force? explain.
7. Name the force with which the earth pulls every object
towards its center.
8. Name of the device used to measure the mass of an object.
9. Name the device used to measure the weight of the object.
10. Why does ___ have difficulty in cycling on clay soil
immediately after rain?
11. Explain the three advantages and disadvantages of friction.
12. Write two practices to reduce friction.
13. Why is the speed of a child playing soccer called random
motion?
14. Write Newton's law of motion.
15. Give the definition of unit of force (Newton).

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16. Explain the difference in the following:

(i) distance and displacement (ii) speed and velocity (iii)
Notes mass and weight
17. Match the quantities in column 'A' with the units taken in
column 'B'.
(A) (B)
1. Velocity (a) N
2. Acceleration (b) -1
3. Force (c) Ms-2
4. Mass (d) m
5. Distance (e) kg
18. Mark the correct answer against the correct answer in the
following:
(a) What is the speed of the pendulum of the hour clock?
(i) linear motion (ii) random motion (iii) oscillating speed
(iv) Rotational speed
(b) If you roam in the Marie-Go-Round, where you had
gone, then you have to go to the same place and take the
round, then what will be your displacement?
(i) equal to the circumference of Marie-go-round (ii)
zero (iii) equal to the diameter of Marie-go-round (iv)
equal to ten times the circumference of Marie-go-round

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(c) Which of the following principles are Diwali rockets

based on ?
(i) Newton's first law of motion (ii) Newton's second Notes
law of motion (iii) Newton's third law of motion (iv)
None of the above.
(d) By what force do you stop the moving bicycle by
applying a brake.
(i) gravitational force (ii) reaction force (iii) frictional
force (iv) magnetic force
(e) If someone walks 20 km in half an hour, How much
will his speed be?
(i) 10 km per hour (ii) 20 km per hour
(iii) 40 km per Hour (iv) 80 km per hour
(f) Which scientist who invented the laws of motion.
(i) Aristotle (ii) Galileo (iii) Faraday (iv) Newton

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

5.1
1. Dynamic: - (a), (b), (c) pause - (c)
2. (a) random motion (b) oscillation speed (c) linear motion
(d) circular motion

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5.2
1. (1) Length, (2) distance, direction, (3) 30, (4) acceleration
Notes 2. m / s
3. Meter / second
5.3
1. (a) First rule, (b) Third rule, (c) Second rule
2. Equivalent to (a), (b) Less, (c) () (d) Friction

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Notes

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Yoga Practices for Anger Management-II
CLASS-VIII

6 Notes

ORDINARY MACHINES

Have you ever tried to open the lid of a soft drink bottle without
an opener? If yes, did you succeed? It is difficult to do this with
the help of only your fingers. But with the opener we can open
the bottle easily. Similarly can you carry heavy weight on a cart
or wheelbarrow without wheels? To do this you have to apply a
lot of force. But you can easily carry heavy weight on wheels. A
bottle opener or both opener and wheel are machines. In fact,
they are so simple that we do not know them as machines.
Similarly, scissors, tongs, nail catching machine, and plane etc.
are all simple machines that we use in our daily life. What would
you do if you had to reach the high terrace? For this, either you
will reach the terrace by walking on a long steep path or you will
climb the stairs to reach the terrace. It is easier to walk on the
sloping path than climbing the stairs, so the sloping surface or
path is also a simple machine. Even a simple object like a scissors
can be a machine and a complicated thing like a computer can
also be a machine.
In this lesson, we will study about the types of ordinary machines,
the principles of their working and their utility in our daily lives.
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OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Notes
• learn about various types of simple machines; and
• explain the use of these machines in daily life.

6.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MACHINES

Ordinary machines do not have many components. In fact,
machines either make our work easier by changing the direction
of force, such as a pulley, or they increase the force we exert,
making it easier for us, such as by force or by increasing the
speed, such as the wheel of a cycle. We mainly use the following
six types of simple machines-
1. lever, 2. pulley, 3. wheel, 4. Sloping floor, 5. screw, 6. quoin

Fig. 6.1 Worker picking stones from a crow bar

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1. Lever
You must have seen the workers lifting heavy stones with the
help of a crow bar. Have you ever wondered how they do Notes
this? You can also try to lift heavy stones yourself. Let us do
an activity for this.
I
4-I-
~~

LJ

ACTIVITY 6.1
L..

What you need to do: Lift the heavy book.

What you need: a heavy book, foot scale of iron and small
wooden blocks
How you have to do:
i. Press one end of the iron scale under the heavy book.
ii. Place a piece of wood under the iron scale near the book.
iii.Now apply downward force at the other end of the scale.
What You Learned: When we apply a downward force on
the scale, the book rises upwards.
But why so? This is because the scale acts like a lever and
increases the force you exert and you can lift the book with a
little pressure. In this way your work becomes easy.
In the above state the book was the load, this piece of wood on
which the scale was fixed was the fulcrum and the force applied
on the scale was effort. We will use these three words to
understand the types of levers.

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 Ordinary Machines
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Different types of levers

In our daily life, we use many types of levers every day. The
Notes spoon acts as a lever in opening the lid of a tin with a spoon.
When we work on paper with a pen, the pen is a kind of lever.
Similarly, when the frog jumps, its legs act as levers. There are
three types of levers according to the comparative position of
effort, load and fulcrum.

(1) First-class lever: In the first-class lever, fulcrum is situated

between the load and effort.
Fulcrum Load Effort

l,nd

i
Xfol-
t
uror1

Ellorl (Old

i
~fafc,ua,

Fig. 6.2 First-class lever

Some levers of this category are shown in Fig. 6.3.

(2) Second-class lever: The second-class lever has an umbrella

at one end of the rod, the effort is applied at the other end and the
load is in the middle.

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Load Fulcrum Effort

Notes

Longer

Sho rte r

.......

Fig. 6.3 Second-class lever

Load Fulcrum

A few examples of the levers of the second class are shown in

Figure 6.3 as well.
Note: The effort in this type of lever is always longer than the
arm load and the arm. Therefore, with less effort, more weight
can be carried.
(3) Third-class lever: In third-class lever, effort is put between
the fulcrum and the load.
Fulcrum effort load

Effort

Fig. 6.4 Third-class lever

Class 3 Lever

Some such levers are shown in Figure 6.4.

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Note: In this category of lever, the effort arm is always smaller

than the load arm, so in this type of lever, less weight can be
lifted with more effort. This type of lever is used to change the
Notes
location of the point where the force is to be applied.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.1

Fill in the blanks:
1. Ordinary machines are .......... attractive or .......... magnifying.
2. Levers are of ……… type.
3. In the first class lever .......... is in the middle.
4. In second class lever ……… is in the middle.
5. In the third class lever ........ is in the middle.
6. In the first class lever used as a force magnifier, the length of
effort arm in the lever should be .......... than the length of the
load arm.

2. Pulley
A woman is pulling water from a well with the help of a
pulley. Actually, a pulley is a wheel that has a groove around
its circumference. It rotates on the axle of the shell that is in the
block. The groove consists of a thread or rope and it prevents the
rope from sliding and helps in lifting the weight by changing
the direction of the force used.
When we take out a bucket full of water from the well, we work
against gravity, so we need more effort. But with a pulley, we

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pull the rope in the direction of gravity, which makes the work
easier. There are two types of pulley:
(1) static pulley and (2) movable pulley Notes
(1) Static pulley: The block to which the pulley is attached is
fixed, does not move. The distance traveled by the effort in a
static pulley is equal to the distance traveled by the load, so + it
does not decrease or increase the force. To remove water from
the well or to hoist the flag, a permanent pulley is used.
(2) Moving pulley: In this type of pulley, the block moves along
with the load and pulley. Two parallel ropes carry the same amount
of weight. Many times many pulleys are used together to lift the
load. By adding many pulleys, more weight can be carried in the
same effort and there is no more stress on the rope.
ACTIVITY 6.2
What you need to do: make a pulley.
What you need: bobbin of a cloth sewing machine, an iron rod,
thick wire on which the bobbin can rotate, a thread and a stone.
How to do this:
1. Put an iron rod in the hole of the bobbin,
2. Put both the ends of the rod on a shell
3. Tie a stone with the thread, and
4. Pass the thread over the bobbin and pull it down the other
side, your pulley is ready

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3. Wheel
We see the wheel being used round us in many ways. Wheel is
one of the great inventions of mankind, which has greatly
Notes
simplified human life. Prior to the invention of the wheel, heavy
objects were pulled or carried on the backs of humans or animals.
There were no vehicles and people used to come from one place
to another with their feet. But the scene changed after the
invention of the wheel. Take the example of bicycle, which runs
on wheels. You can reach more quickly on the bicycle than on
feet. Hence the wheel of the bicycle acts as a moving magnifier.
The wheel has made human life faster, easier, less hard-working.
Wheels are used in cars, bicycles,
carts, trains and buses etc. The
wheel is a simple machine that
INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.2
can be used in a vehicle with a
knob and used as a force
magnifier. The wheel operates on
the principle that rolling friction
is always less than sliding friction.
Fig. 6.5 Use of Wheels

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.2

Fill in the blanks:
1. By changing the ........... of effort with the help of a pulley we
can conveniently lift more load.
2. The pulleys are of ……… types.

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3. Rolling friction is always less than ....... friction.

4. A moving pulley with a knob acts as a …….... magnifier and
a ........ amplifier. Notes

6.2 OTHER ORDINARY MACHINES

1. Inclined Plane
You must have seen from which high place the drum is rolled,
because it is easier to roll the drum from such a place than to lift it.
This slope is called inclined plane. The inclined plane is such a
plane, one end of which is to make the slope raised.
It is used for lifting heavy goods. You may have noticed that a
flat board is used to load or unload goods in the truck. The houses
have slopes that are built on high altitude. These slopes are used
for mounting or descending cars or scooters. You must have seen
that sloping places are made in hospitals, so that stretchers and
wheel chairs can easily come in and out of them. Similarly, the
roads on the hills have a slight slope so that the vehicles can run
smoothly. These types of slopes are also magnifying forces, which
are very helpful in unloading the goods. If we lift the same weight
perpendicularly to the earth, it will seem more difficult.

Fig. 6.6 The example of inclined plane

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2. Screw
The screw looks like any nail, but it has curved cuts whose sides
Notes are curved. Screw is used to connect objects. The screw uses a
hoist to lift the car, which operates on the principle of inclined
plane. When you rotate the handle of the car jack, the screw of the
jack rotates round and round each time the car lifts up the distance
between the two bangles of the screw. The handle on which we
apply force covers a greater distance than the car, so with the help
of a screw, heavy weight can be lifted using small force.
Screw, if carefully looked at, is a form of sloped area i.e. the
inclined plane. To understand this, let us do the following
activities:
4-l·
~~
~

..........

ACTIVITY 6.3
What you have to do: To see that screw is a form of inclined
plane.
What you need: a pencil and a square piece of paper.
How to do you:
1. Cut the paper in the form of a right angled triangle by folding
it in the middle.
2. Color its hypotenuse with ink.
3. Now wrap it on the pencil as shown in Figure 6.11.
You will see that: The colored edge of the paper looks like a
I ring of screw bangles.
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Conclusion: Therefore, we can say that the screw is also a

form of inclined plane.
3. Wedge Notes

Wedge is a metal or triangular piece of wood, which is used to

lift something or separate logs of wood. Wedge is probably one
of the oldest machines used by humans. Stab, knife and chisel
etc. are commonly used wedge.
It is difficult to separate the two sections, but with the help of
a wedge it can be easily done. The wedgeincreases the app-
lied force. To separate blocks till 2 cm the wedge is hammered i.e.
thumped about 6 cm. In other words, the wedge works because it
is longer than the thickness.

ACTIVITY 6.4 J
What you need to do: Make a wedge by joining the back of
two inclined plane.
What you need: Clay, knife.
How you have to do:
1. Make a clay spoon,
2. Cut it with a sharp-edged knife as per the picture,
3. Now you have two sloping areas.
Conclusion: This is how we can say that wedge is made by
joining the back of two inclined planes.

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 Ordinary Machines
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.3
1. What is inclined plane?
Notes
2. Give two examples of inclined plane.
3. How do you prove that the screw is an inclined plane, perform
an activity.
4. What is a wedge? Give two examples of this.
•

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• Machines make our work easy and fast.
• Simple machines either change the direction of force or
increase the force used.
• Simple machines are of various types, such as levers, pulleys,
ventilators, screws, and spikes. There are three types of levers,
first class, second class, third class.
• The first class lever consists of fulcrum, effort and load.
• The second class lever carries a load between effort and
fulcrum.
• The third class lever consists of effort between fulcrum and
load.
• A pulley is a wheel around which there are cuts. It lifts the
load by changing the direction of the force.
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• Invention of the wheel made human life simpler, faster and

easier.
• The inclined plane is a flat surface, which is raised at one Notes
end to form a slope.
• The screw is an inclined plane.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. State whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) The point at which the lever is supported is called its
shell.
(ii) Scissors is an example of a first-class lever.
(iii) Rolling the drum from the sloping area is more difficult
than lifting.
(iv) Stairs are an example of an inclined plane.
2. Fill in the blanks:
(i) ................. is in the middle of the first type of lever.
(ii) Pulley transforms the force of the ............... .
(iii) The point of support in the lever is called ………. .
3. Match the statement of column 'A' with the statement of
column 'B':
Column 'A' Column 'B'
(i) The lever (a) is a wheel which has cuts.

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 Ordinary Machines
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(ii) Slope area (b) Helps move the object with a

little force.

Notes (iii) The wheel (c) is a hard rod, which revolves

around the fulcrum.

(iv) The pulley (d) is a flat surface, raised at one

end to form a slope.

4. What are simple machines called? Give examples of four

simple machines.

5. How are simple machines useful to us? Explain the three

uses of simple machines.

6. What is a lever?

7. How many types of levers are there? Give two examples of

each type of lever.

8. Divide the following into first, second and third class

levers- scissors, pliers, tweezers, bottle-opener, lemon juicer,
stick.

9. What is a pulley? Write two examples of pulley. How is

pulley useful to us?

10. How the invention of the wheel changed our lives, explain.

11. What is inclined plane? How is it useful for us?

12. Give the definition of (i) load, (ii) fulcrum and (iii) effort.

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13. Why is it easier to open a tin lid with a spoon than with
fingers?

14. Write the names of three points (load, fulcrum and effort) Notes
and the type of lever in each of the following friends.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

6.1

1. Force, Speed

2. Three

3. Fulcrum

4. load

5. Effort

6. longer

6.2

1. Direction

2. Two

3. sliding

4. Moving, Force

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 135

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 Ordinary Machines
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6.3

1. The plane with a slope is called an inclined plane.

Notes
2. (i) slope made in front of door of a house for mounting
scooter or car.

(ii) inclined plane or board for loading of goods on the

truck

3. See Activity-3

4. A wedge is a triangular piece of metal or wood. Examples

are knives, chisel etc.

136 Vijnana, Level-C

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Yoga Practices for Anger Management-II
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Notes

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 137

Pressure
CLASS-VII

7 Notes

PRESSURE

We use the word 'force' in our daily conversation. You may have
noticed that 'force' is an external effort, which we use to 'push' or
'pull' and it can produce motion in a stationary body. The motion
of a moving body can change, the direction of its motion or
sometimes its shape can also change.
When we apply force on an object, we touch that object. But,
there are many forces in which things do not need to come into
contact. For example, the iron piece is pulled towards the magnet,
after combing the dry hair and pulling the small pieces of paper,
or falling off the objects due to gravitational force of the earth.
The effect of forces exerted at a distance does not depend on the
area of contact, but the effect of contact forces depends on the
area of contact. To understand this, let us take a few examples,
such as imagine that you first place a weight directly on the head
and then put the same weight on the head with a turban on it,
then you think, in which case you will get more convenience and
why?

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In this way, if we lift one leg up while standing on the sand, then
why does the other leg move deeper in the sand? Let us read this
lesson to know the answer to many such questions.
Notes

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
• explain the thrust and pressure;
• know the fluids and air pressure; and
• describe flotation.

7.1 THRUST AND PRESSURE

Put a book on your palm. A force equal to the weight of the book
acts on your arm in a perpendicular direction, because you know
that the weight of any object is the force with which the earth
pulls that object towards its center. Similarly, when you place a
pin on the notice board, then you use force in a vertical direction
on the board. Even in closing the door, we apply force in the
vertical direction on the surface of the door. In all these examples
you saw that the force seems perpendicular to the surface, that
we call it thrust.

Fig. 7.1 Hand held thrust

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Now we will see how the contact between two surfaces depends
on the area - let's do some activities:

Notes

ACTIVITY 7.1
What you need to do: See how the effect of thrust depends
on the area of contact.

What you need: a pointed nail, a blunt nail, a large piece of

wood and a hammer.

How to do you:

1. Place the pointed nail on a piece of wood and hit it with a

hammer from a height.

2. Now put the blunt nail on a piece of wood, hit it with the
same height with a hammer. See which nail penetrates
deeper into the wood. You will find that the spiked nail
goes inside the wood comfortably, while the blunt nail does
not penetrate as compared to pointed nail.

Now if you use more and more force on the blunt nail, then you
will find that this nail will also penetrate more into the wood.

This shows that the effect of force also depends on the force
applied, which means that the effect of the force is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the force applied.

What do you conclude from this, That is, if we increase the area

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of contact, the effect of force decreases and the effect of force

increases when the area of contact decreases.

Notes

Fig. 7.2 Nail in wood

In the above action, we saw that the thrust is almost the same in
both the states, But the effect of thrust varies with the contact
area, that is, if you increase the contact area, then the effect of
the thrust used is less and if you decrease the contact area then
the effect of the thrust used is more. Therefore, it remains in
proportion to the area of contact area. This effect of force is
commonly called force or pressure. In mathematical terms, we
can write it in this way- Thrust Area In other words, we can
define pressure as the force exerted on the area per unit.
Since the unit of force is newton (N) and the unit of area or
distance (m), the unit of pressure will be newton per meter (Nm2),
also called Pascal.

ACTIVITY 7.2
What you have to do: Demonstrate that the effect of force
depends on the area of contact between two surfaces.

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What you need: 10 five-rupee coins, a thin cardboard piece,

two large pieces of wood.

How to do it: Notes

1. Place the cardboard strip on the pieces of wood.

2. Make a pair of two coins parallel to the length of the

cardboard strip and keep all ten coins.

3. Then place all the 10 coins one on top of each other and
place the stack in the center of the cardboard strip.

You will find that the strip in the first position is slightly bent
in the middle and more in the second position than the first
position.

From this you can conclude that the effect of force is greater
when it is concentrated in a small area. If the same force is
spread over a relatively long area, its effect decreases.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.1

1. Fill in the blanks:

(i) Pressure is directly proportional to …….

(ii) Pressure is inversely proportional to ........

(iii) The unit of thrust is ……….

(iv) Pascal is a unit of …….

2. Why are two wide rear tires used in heavy trucks?

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 141

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3. Why are the walls of a furnace widened?
4. Why is the knife edge sharpened?
Notes
7.2 PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS
The size of a solid is fixed, but the fluid has no fixed size. Fluids
form the shape of the vessel in which they are kept. The fluid
exerts pressure on the bottom and walls of the vessel.
Let us study the pressure of liquid.
J\9r-
~§
.;t

ACTIVITY 7.3
What you have to do: See that the fluid exerts pressure on
the bottom and other surfaces of the vessel.
What do you need: A plastic bottle, a balloon, cutter and water.
How to do it:
1. Cut the bottom of the bottle with the help of a cutter.
2. Close the bottom of the bottle with a balloon.
3. Hold the bottle vertically.
4. Add some water in it and see what is the effect on the balloon
tied in the bottom?
5. Fill more water in the bottle and see its effect on the balloon.
What you noticed: As we pour water into the bottle, the size
of the balloon increases downwards.
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Conclusion: From this you can make a natural conclusion that
if the water is filled in the vessel, then there is pressure on its
bottom.
Notes
49r-
~s
~

ACTIVITY 7.4
What you have to do: Understand that there is partial pressure
in the liquid.
What do you need: A plastic 'T' shaped pipe, a plastic pipe,
two balloons and water.
How to do it:
1. Attach one pipe and two balloons with a 'T' pipe as per the
picture.
2. Now connect the second part of the pipe to the tap and
open the tap.
What you saw: Balloons start to swell when the tap is opened.
By this action it is clear that the pressure of the fluid is not only
in the bottom of the vessel but also on the walls of the vessel.
Let us now discuss other symptoms of pressure in fluid.
Fig. 7.3 Partial pressure of liquids

I
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 143
 Pressure
CLASS-VII
.\9r-
~~
~

ACTIVITY 7.5
What you have to do: Show that the pressure of the fluid
Notes
increases with depth.
What you need: a cylindrical powder case, a stool, a pin, a
little clay.
How to do you:
1. Make three holes in the cylindrical case at different heights.
2. Fill the holes with clay and close them.
3. Fill the pot with water.
4. Now remove the clay.
What you saw: You will see that the pressure of water coming
out from the bottom hole is maximum, while the pressure of
water coming from the top most hole is the minimum.
Conclusion: It is evident that the water pressure increases with
the depth of the water. As the water pressure in the ocean floor
is higher than the surface, the diver wears a special type of
clothing, so that the balance of pressure on the body remains
in the water.
.\9r-
~~
~
ACTIVITY 7.6
What you have to do: See that the fluid has the same pressure
in all directions at a certain depth.
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What you need: a cylindrical case of powder, stools for

holding utensils, pins for piercing, clay.
How to do you: Notes

1. Make six holes of equal size in the cylindrical case at the

same height.
2. Fill the holes with clay.
3. Fill the pot with water.
4. Now remove the clay.
What you saw: Water is flowing at the same pressure through
all the holes, that's why it falls on the ground at the same
distance from the vessel.
Conclusions: From this you can conclude that fluid has the
same pressure in all directions at the same depth.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2

1. Why do divers in the sea need special type of clothing?
2. State whether the sentences given below are correct or
incorrect.
(i) Water pressure varies in all directions at a certain depth.
(ii) Pressure increases with depth in the fluid.
(iii) The fluid exerts pressure only on the vessel walls.
3. Why are water tanks placed slightly above the ground?

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7.3 AIR PRESSURE
We all know that we live at the bottom of the immeasurable ocean
Notes of air and this air surrounding the earth is called 'Atmosphere'.
The expansion of the atmosphere is about 100 km. Due to the
gravitational pull of the Earth, air is more dense near the Earth's
surface. This density decreases as we move upwards. Since we
live on the surface of the atmosphere and the air is dense, due to
this we are subjected to air pressure which is called 'atmospheric'
pressure.
Let us do some activities related to air pressure.
4llr-
~s
~

ACTIVITY 7.7
What you have to do: See that air also exerts pressure.
What you need: a plastic bottle, hot water and cold water
How to do it:
1. Fill the bottle with enough hot water.
2. After some time, remove half the water from the bottle and
put a lid on its mouth.
3. Now keep this bottle in the fridge or add ice water and cool
it.
What did you see: Cooling will crack the bottle.
From this you can conclude that after cooling the bottle, the
steam inside the bottle turns into drops of water and only a
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little water remains in the form of steam, so the pressure inside

the bottle slightly decreases. The pressure of atmospheric air
does not change, so this excess pressure outside distorts the
Notes
bottle.

Fig. 7.4 Air also exerts pressure.

Through the above action we saw that air also exerts pressure.
Vacuum
An experiment showing the predominance of atmospheric
pressure was conducted in 1640 by Auto van Guerich. Two hollow
hemispherical iron cylinders were assembled and all the air was
pumped out with the help of a vacuum pump.
As a result of atmospheric pressure from opposite directions, the
hemispheres joined tightly and were separated only when pulled
by eight horses on each side. By doing this, the atmospheric
pressure between the hemispheres decreased, and there vacuum
was created.
Use of vacuum: You must have seen the lizard sticking to the
walls or ceiling. Have you thought about how they stick to the

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Notes

Fig. 7.5 Lizard and his paw

wall? It uses the same principle that we use to stick vacuum-

based hooks to the wall. When we press the hook with a
hemispherical shape on the wall, the air between it and the wall
is removed and the atmospheric pressure keeps it pressed against
the wall. Similarly, there is some space under the paws of the
lizard and as soon as it presses the paws on the wall, air escapes
between the paws and the wall. When a vacuum is formed
between the paws and the surface and due to atmospheric pressure
it sticks to the wall and is able to walk on the wall and roof.
Inside the vacuum cleaner the pump sucks the dust particles as
well as the air and cleans the surface.

Our body and atmospheric pressure

The body of all living beings is made up of cells, some of which
are filled with fluid. Whose pressure is outward which is equal
to atmospheric pressure. Think what would happen if you put a
similar cell in a vacuum? Due to unbalanced pressure inside the

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cell, it will burst. You may have noticed that astronauts wear
special types of clothing to go into space. These garments
maintain the same pressure as atmospheric pressure between the
Notes
clothes and the body even in space.
At high temperatures, the atmospheric pressure decreases
compared to the internal pressure of our body. Due to this, the
pressure inside the body becomes high and some blood vessels
rupture and start bleeding. It is common for people who travel in
airplanes or climb mountains etc. to miss a nose bleed.
Use of air pressure in daily life
1) In inflating balloons and tires.
2) To fill the ink in the fountain pan.
3) Doctor's injection.
4) When drinking cold drinks through staws.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.3

1 What changes in atmospheric pressure as you rise above the
surface of the Earth?
2. What is a barometer?
3. How does vacuum based hook sticks to your bathroom
tile?
4. Describe a simple action that clarifies that air pressure
exerts.

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7.4 FLOTATION
It is a simple matter that when an object is placed in water, its
Notes weight decreases. You feel more light weighted in a bathtub or
while swimming. Similarly, when you drain water from the tank
or well, the bucket feels light as long as it remains submerged in
the water, but when the weights come above the surface of the
water, it becomes heavy. In all these situations, it is the upward
pressure of water, which we call flotation, due to which the body
becomes lighter. Let's do some more activities:
~-r-
~s
~

ACTIVITY 7.8
What you have to do: Show that water also pressurizes the
body.
What you want: spring balance, thread, a stone, mug and
water.
How to do you:
1. Hang a stone in a spring balance with the help of thread.
2. Read the stone weight scale by the indicator of spring
balance.
3. Now let this stone sink in the water kept in the mug and
again read the scale indicator of spring balance.
What you saw: Submerging underwater reduces the load on
the stone.
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Notes
Fig. 7.6 Reduction in load of stone immersed in water
When a body is placed in a liquid, two forces act on it, the
gravitational force of the Earth, which pulls this body downward
and the force exerted by the fluid, which lifts it upward. This
force exerted by the liquid is called buoyant force.
The factors on which flotation is dependent are as following -
1) The volume of the body - the larger the size of the body, the
greater the flotation will be.
2) Density of liquid - The Density of the liquid in which the
object is placed, the higher its density, the greater its
buoyancy.
In an activity, if you place a stone tied with spring balance, and
dip in honey instead of water, you will find that the weight of the
stone will decrease further. Since the density of honey is higher
than water, its flotation will also be higher.
The mass of water removed by a body is the measure of the
flotation of that fluid.

I
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 151
 Pressure
CLASS-VII
Archimedes Principle
To understand the principle of Archimedes, let's do some
Notes activities:
4-?-
~~
~

ACTIVITY 7.9
What you need to do: To study the weight loss of a body in a
liquid.
What you need: a cane, a stone, water, thread, glass, spring
balance.
How to do it:
1. Tie the stone with a thread and hang in the hook of spring
balance and find its weight.
2. Fill water to the drain pipe in the effluent cane. Place an
empty glass near the drain pipe.
3. Slide the spring balance and allow the stone to sink into the
cane water.
4. Find the weight of stone in water.
5. Find the weight of water collected in the glass.
What you saw: The weight of the stone would have decreased
after weighing in the water, which is equal to the weight of
water collected in the glass of water it has removed.
Conclusion: This observation is the principle of Archimedes.
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The principle of Archimedes:

According to this, when an object is completely or partially
immersed in water or in any other liquid, its weight decreases Notes
which is equal to the weight of the fluid removed by it.
Principle of Flotation
When placing a body in a liquid, there are two forces acting on
it, first is its self weight and second is buoyancy force. Now
there can be three conditions.
Stage-1 : If the weight of the object is more than the flotation
force then the object will sink. For example, if you
keep five coins of 2-2 rupees in the camera reel box
and keep this box in water then it will sink.
Phase-2 : If the weight of the object is equal to the force of
buoyancy then the object floats. For example, if you
take out two coins from the camera reel box, you
will see that the box is floating in the water.
Phase-3 : If the weight of the object is less than the force of
buoyancy, then the object in the water emerges on
the surface and floats in such a way that there is only
that part within the surface of the liquid, which is
equal to the weight of the object in water. Removes.
For example, if we remove 2 more coins from the
camera reel box and only one coin remains in the
box, you will see that the box floats on the surface of
the water and only part of it is under water.

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 153

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Notes

Fig. 7.7 Floating states

We can summarize these three conditions in this way.

Weight - Buoyancy force sinking of object.
Load Buoyancy force floating of an object completely submerged
in water.
Load flotation force of object on the surface (only a small part
remains underwater).
The principle of flotation is used in water ships, submarines and
icebergs.

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ACTIVITY 7.10 7
let us increase our knowledge a little bit more
_ {J
Notes
Activity: making of obedient tin water
What do you need: An empty oil tin.
How to do it:
1. Make holes in the tin one on the bottom and other on a lid.
2. Cover the bottom hole with the finger and fill water in
the tin.
3. Close the top hole with the finger and remove the finger
from the bottom hole. Does tin drop water?
4. Remove finger from the top hole. what happens now?
What did you see, when you close the hole on the lid, the water
from the bottom hole stops and then when it opens, then the water
starts coming out. You have received a magically obedient case
in your hand. Close the hole of the lid and say 'stop', then the
water stops. Remove the finger from the hole and say 'flow' then
water flows.
You must have understood the scientific principle of the obedient
box. By placing the finger on the lid of the tin, the pressure of the
atmosphere on the water inside the box is not effective. Therefore,
the atmospheric pressure from the bottom to top of the bottom
hole does not let it come out due to the pressure of the water
inside the box.

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49r-
~s
~

ACTIVITY 7.11
Notes Activity: To show that air also pressures
What you need:
a glass, water and a little thick cloth that can bear the weight of
the glass.
How to do you:
1. Fill the glass with boiling water.
2. Cover it with a cloth.
3. Now hold the cloth tightly with a glass bottom.
4. Invert the glass.
What you saw:
Despite the reverse, the glass water does not filter and fall down.
What do you conclude from this? The water is down. It is clear
that the effective atmospheric pressure on the cloth from below
prevents the water from falling.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.4
1. What do you understand by measurement of flotation?
2. Write two uses of the principle of the flotation.
3. If the weight of the object is exactly equal to the buoyancy
force, will the object float?
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•
WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

Force is the effort of pushing or pulling in any form.

_ {J
Notes

• A thrust is a force that acts perpendicular to a surface and

the international unit of force - Newton.
• Pressure - thrust /area.
• The unit of pressure is Newton per meter ().
• The pressure emitted by the liquid increases with increasing
depth within the liquid.
• At any given depth, the liquid has the same pressure in all
directions.
• The vessel in which liquid is kept exerts pressure on the
bottom and wall of the vessel.
• The pressure generated by air is called atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer.
• Atmospheric pressure varies at different places and at
different times.
• If an object is poured into a liquid, the upward force on the
object is called buoyant force.
• Archimedes' theory states that if an object is fully or partially
inserted into a liquid, the buoyancy force exerted by it is
equalto the weight of the liquid removed by the object.

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TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Give a definition of buoyancy force.
Notes
2. State the principle of Archimedes.
3. State the difference between force, thrust and pressure.
4. Match the words 'B' in the column 'A':
Column (a) Column (b)
(i) Archimedes principle (A) Barometer
(ii) Force (B) Pressure field
(ii) Pressure (C) Force on the unit area
(iv) Atmospheric pressure (D) When an object is placed in
a liquid, its load decreases
(v) Buoyancy force (E) The liquid removed by the
object then the weight of that
liquid is equal to the
buoyancy force exerted on
the object.
5. Answer the following questions in one sentence:
(A) What is the relationship between force and pressure?
(B) State the pressure unit.
(C) Describe the unit of buoyant force.
(D) What do you understand by pressure?

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(E) Describe the factors on which, on which pressure is
dependent on a point within the liquid.?
(F) What happens if the weight of a body is less than the
_ {J
Notes
buoyancy force
(G) When the bucket filled with water is kept inside the
waterof the well, why does it feel lighter?
(H) How will you prove that the pressure of a liquid with
depth increases?
(I) What changes in atmospheric pressure is observed as
you go up?

6. Fill in the blanks:

(i) At some point inside the liquid, the pressure will
be……….. at the same depth.
(ii) The weight of the object in the liquid and the buoyancy
force exerted on it act ……... on each other.
(iii) At atmospheric pressure due to .......... some people
suffer from nosebleeds at high places.
(iv) By ………. the contact area, the pressure can be
reduced.
(v) Pressure is directly proportional to ...…… and
inversely proportional to ...…….
(vi) Force per unit area is known as ……….

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ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTINS

Notes 7.1 1. (i) Force, (ii) Area, (iii) Newton, (iv) Pressure
2. So that the surface area of the tires is more and they
feelless pressure even in the state of being overweight.
3. Reduce pressure for more force.
4. When the edge is thin, its area will be less, consequently
applying less force will also exert more pressure.

7.2 1. So that it can withstand the pressure exerted by changing

the depth of water, and maintain a balance of pressure
in the body.
2. (i) False, (ii) True, (iii) False
3. So that the pressure of the fluid (water) increases.

7.3 1. is low.
2. Atmospheric pressure measuring instrument.
3. Pressing the hook removes the air inside, creating a
partialvacuum there. The hook is sticky due to high
externalpressure.
4. inflating of balloon when filled with air.

7.4 1. The mass of a fluid removed by a body is a measure

ofthe flotation of that fluid.
2. Swimming of ships and icebergs.
3. Yes,

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Notes

CLASS-VIII
Lesson 8 Mechanical Energy and Heat
Lesson 9 Light And Sound
Lesson 10 Electric Current And Magnetism
Lesson 11 Information-Communication Technology
Lesson 12 Advancement In Food Production

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Notes

162 Science, Level-C

Mechanical Energy And Heat
CLASS-VIII

8 Notes

MECHANICAL ENERGY
AND HEAT

You must have experienced that we get tired of working

continuously for too long and say that there is no strength to
work anymore.
What do we mean by the word 'Strength' here? In the previous
lesson you read that the ability of a body to function is a measure
of the energy of that body. So we are using the word strength for
energy only. By working, our energy decreases and we have to
take diet to get it back.
Energy in objects is due to various reasons, as a result of which
we recognize energy in different forms. We will study some basic
forms of energy in this chapter.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
• understand mechanical energy;
• Having to know heat and temperature; and
• able to indicate the importance of heat in our life.
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8.1 MECHANICAL ENERGY

You must have seen that the water of the river descending from
Notes the mountain carries large stones with it. A lot of energy is required
to move the stone. Have you thought about what energy is in the
flowing water? You must have also noticed that in the plains,
where the velocity of water decreases, stones do not move as
easily. That is, this energy in water is associated with its speed.
The energy which is due to its motion in a moving object is called
'kinetic energy'. When the moving cricket ball hits the stumps,
they crumble and fall. In the game of carrom when the striker
collides with a stationary object, then that object moves forward.
In both of these examples kinetic energy only works.
We can see that if you put a moving small toy car on the table
and when it collides with a box of matches, the box of the match
box moves away. If the mass or velocity of the toy car is increased,
the matchbox moves more far. Meaning: The kinetic energy of
an object depends on the mass and velocity of that object.
The ability of the object to function also comes due to its position,
which we call potential energy, such as pulling the rubber strips
into the slingshot brings them potential energy, due to which
when we release the strips The stone placed in the center falls
away. When you key in the clock, the potential energy comes
due to cramps in the watch. When this spasm opens, the clock
needle starts to move, by lifting the hammer it gains potential
energy, due to which when the hammer hits the peg then the peg
penetrates into the ground.
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You may have also noticed that when the weight of the hammer
is high or if it falls from a high height, the peg goes deeper into
the ground in each injury, that is the gravitational potential energy
Notes
of an object depends on the weight and height from the floor.
Due to the motion or position of the object, the energy it contains
is directly converted into work, hence it is called mechanical
energy. Thus there are two types of mechanical energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy. When an object falls from the top
or rolls down on the bottom, its potential energy decreases and
in the same result the kinetic energy increases. Thus the total
mechanical energy of that object remains constant. For example,
a rock placed on the top of a mountain has no kinetic energy,
only potential energy, so its total mechanical energy is only
potential energy. However, when the same rock starts rolling, it
has both potential and kinetic energies at some point on the
hillside. When the rock goes under the mountain, there is no
potential energy in it and the total mechanical energy is kinetic
energy. Thus we see that in any case the total mechanical energy
of the object is the potential energy () kinetic energy.
To understand the concepts mentioned above more clearly, let's
do an activity:
49r-
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.;t

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ACTIVITY 8.1
What you need to do: Study the mechanical energy of a body.
What you need: A long nail, thread, metal ball with a hook, a
dense piece of wood.

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How to do you:
1. Hammer the nail into the wall at a height of about 1 meter
Notes
from the floor.
2. Tie the metal sphere to the thread and hang it on the nail in
such a way that it stays slightly above the floor.
3. Keep a wooden block close to the sphere.
4. Hold the sphere and slightly move it to a certain position
and then leave it free. See what happens?
5. Place the Wooden block in the first place and remove the
sphere by removing it a little bit further. See what happens?
What you have seen is that the farther away we leave the sphere,
the higher the velocity it hits with the wooden block and the faster
the sphere hits the block, the more the block moves further.
From this we can conclude that:
1. Moving spheres have kinetic energy. Due to which it performs
the task of repelling the block.
2. The farther you move the sphere, the higher it rises from the
original position. As a result, the more potential energy comes
into it.
3. As the sphere moves from the position of maximum
displacement to its original position, its potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy and the velocity increases. In
the case of maximum displacement, the total mechanical-
energy is equal to the potential-energy, whereas, in the original
state it is only in kinetic energy.
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.1

Fill in the blanks:
Notes
1. The energy due to its motion in an object is called ……….
2. Mechanical energy is the sum of.........energy and......... energy.
3. There is no change in the …….. energy of a glass ball rolling
on the horizontal plane.
4. Stagnant water filled in the dam has ……… energy.
5. If you double the height of the object from the floor, its
potential energy gets ……...
8.2 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Winter, summer are common experiences of our life. The form
of energy that gives us the feeling of cold, hot is called heat. If
heat goes outside our body, we feel cold and if heat enters our
body from outside the environment then we feel hot.
This physical amount which determines the direction of flow of
heat is called temperature. Heat always flows from high temperature
to low temperature. You will remember that during the summer days
when the temperature of the air exceeds our body temperature (about
37 ° C) then we feel hot and on winter days when the temperature of
the room falls below 37 ° C. we feel cold.
Heat is a form of energy, it is not difficult to understand. You
must have noticed that when a plate is covered on a boiling water
vessel, the plate rises again and again under the pressure of steam.
Obviously, the work that steam does in raising the lid is possible

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only due to heat. By the energy of steam from the steam engine,
a piston is driven back and forth, and it is converted to work as
needed. So heat, because it can work, is a form of energy.
Notes
Around us we can see other types of energy changing to heat,
such as the chemical energy in the burning of a candle converts
into heat, the electric energy in an electric furnace turns into
heat, the mechanical energy in working against friction is heat.
In fact, basically heat and temperature are associated with the
kinetic energy of the molecules of matter. The higher the average
kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance, the higher its
temperature and the kinetic energy of its molecules increases
when the substance is heated.
Effects of heat
One or more of the following effects are manifested in an object
upon heating: (i) increase in size, (ii) increase in temperature,
(iii) change in state, (iv) change in certain physical and chemical
properties, (v) ) Decay of living cells etc.
Let's study some of these effects by activities:
(i) Thermodynamic
49r-
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~ ACTIVITY 8.2
What you need to do: See if the length of a rod increases
with heating.
What you need: Two identical wooden blocks, a metal rod
with a hole made at one end, a round pencil, spirit lamp, screw
and screwdriver.
I
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How to do you:
1. Place the rod on the block.
2. Put a screw in the hole present at the end of the metal rod Notes
and tighten it in a wooden block.
3. Place the pencil under the other end and put the indicator
on one end of the pencil.
4. When the rod is heated in the middle with a spirit lamp.
What changes are seen in the indicator and pencil
position?
5. Remove the spirit lamp and allow the rod to cool.
What you noticed: On heating the rod, the pencil is rolled
slightly forward and the indicator rotates slightly compared to
its first position. On cooling, these two almost return to their
former positions. From this we can conclude that solids expand
when heated and shrink when cooled.
You should know that liquids also expand when heated like solids.
To understand this, let's try an experiment.
-\9r-
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ACTIVITY 8.3
What you need to do: See if the fluids also expand when
heated.
What you need: a test tube holder, a cork with a hole and a
large candle, colored water, glass tube.

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How to do it:
1. Fill the test tube with colored water up to the mouth.

Notes 2. Put a glass tube in the hole of the cork and place it well in
the test tube, so that the water does not flow out of the
mouth of the test tube. The water will climb into the glass
tube to some height.
3. Hold the test tube with the holder and heat it on top of the
burning spirit lamp. See the bottom of the water in the glass
tube.
What you saw: The floor of the water gets high in the hot glass
tube. From this we can conclude that on heating the fluid expands
and this diffusion in liquids is much higher than that of solids
Comments: By taking kerosene in place of water and heating it
for equal time, it can be seen that on equal heating, heat diffusion
in different substances varies.
The use of heat diffusion
On heating the material they expand. There are many uses of this
fact in our lives. Thermodynamics are often used in thermometers.
The higher the temperature, the higher the spread. Hence heat
can be compared by diffusion. The blacksmith first heats the rim
to mount an iron rim to the wooden wheels of the cart, which
increases its diameter and easily mounts to the wheel. When
cooled, this rim shrinks and sits tightly on the wheel. Curves are
made in between to facilitate the flow of hot water in pipes.
Similarly, when making railway tracks rails, spaces are provided
between two joints.
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ACTIVITY 8.4 J
What you have to do: See if the gas also expands on heating?
Notes
What you need: test tube, one hole cork, hollow glass tube,
test tube holder, candle
How to do:
1. Put a glass tube in the cork hole and place it in the test tube.
2. Put a drop of colored water in a hollow glass tube.
3. Gently heat the test tube over a candle flame. Observe
the change in height of the drop of colored water in the
tube.
4. Allow the test tube to cool. Now what changes in the height
of colored water drop?
You saw: that on heating the test tube, a drop of colored water
rises in the glass tube and on cooling it returns back down.
From this we can conclude that the volume of gas increases on
heating and decreases on cooling.
Notes:
1. It has been observed by experiments that all the gases have
the same thermal diffusion, that is, they are increased
uniformly by equal heating.
2. Thermal diffusion is much higher in gases than in liquids.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.2

1. What do we do to remove the glass stopper in a lab bottle?
Notes
Why?
2. Is there an equal thermal diffusion in all solids when heated
evenly?
3. Why is it difficult to show thermal expansion in solids?
4. State one of the uses of thermal expansion.
5. When compared between liquid and gas, which one has more
thermal diffusion?

8.3 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

The measurement of the heat or coldness of an object is called
the temperature of that object. Often, the object is thought to be
hot or cold by touching it. But be aware that the temperature of
objects cannot be accurately estimated by touching. Let us try an
experiment for this.

ACTIVITY 8.5
What you have to do: See that the temperature of objects
cannot be accurately estimated by touching.
What you need: Three plastic tubs, a little cold water, a little
hot water and a little tap water.
How to do:
1. Put on the table the three tubs alongside.
2. In tub (A) put cold water, hot water in the second tub (B)
and tap water in the third tub (C).
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3 Keep your left hand in cold water and your right hand in
hot water for some time.
4. Now keep both hands together in normal water. Do both Notes
hands feel the same temperature?
What you saw: The left hand feels hot and the right hand feels
cold. Although the temperature of the entire water in the tub is
the same, it appears to be different due to the difference in the
initial temperature of the two hands. Therefore, the temperature
of an object cannot be accurately estimated by touch.

Fig. 8.5 Estimating temperature by touching

Thermometer
The instrument, which is used to measure the temperature of an
object, is called a thermometer. We measure temperature in
degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit.
We use different types of thermometers for different purposes.
Figure 8.6 shows two different types of thermometers. The
thermometer shown in Figure (a) is a laboratory thermometer, it

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has signs from zero to 100 ° C () and is used to measure the

temperature of objects in the laboratory.

Notes Figure (b) shows a medical thermometer. We use it to measure

fever. It has signs from 30 ° C to 42 ° C (or 95 ° F to 110 ° F). In
this thermometer, there is a small bend in the tube just above the
bulb, due to which the mercury rises up after getting heat but
does not automatically return. You must have seen that before
using a medical thermometer, first wash it, then jerk it to lower
the mercury, after that apply it to the body.

oc
38.6
Js.s·c

,....-...._
•

C
•
F

I-I 0

=
;s;

•
@ (9
Fig. 8.6 Different types of thermometer

Similarly, the maximum-minimum thermometer is also a type of

thermometer. It is used by meteorologists to know maximum
how much atmospheric temperature is reached in 24 hours time
and how much less?
An oven thermometer or a metal thermometer is generally used
to measure extreme temperatures. To learn how to use a medical
thermometer, let's do the following activities.

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ACTIVITY 8.6
What you need to do: Study the medical thermometer and
find the temperature of your body by it. Notes

What you need: A medical thermometer.

How to do:
1. Observe the scale of a medical thermometer and find the
temperature to be determined by a small fraction of it.
2. Hold the thermometer tightly and give 2-3 shocks so that
the thin line of mercury goes below 35 ° C inside the
thermometer.
3. Now place the thermometer bulb under your tongue for
about 1 1/2 minutes.
4. Take out the thermometer from the mouth and see what
mark the upper end of the bright line of mercury is?
What you saw: Generally, the upper end of the mercury line
is at 37 ° C. This is the temperature of your body.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.3

1. In which heat premises can a medical thermometer measure
heat?
2. What type of thermometer would you use to measure the heat
of the stove?
3. Which fluid is filled in a medical thermometer?
4. Why the mercury does not come down in the medical
thermometer when taken out of the mouth?
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8.4 HEAT MEASUREMENT
So you know that if a substance is heated, its temperature usually
increases. The heat rise in a substance for a certain amount of
Notes
heat depends on the mass of the substance and its nature. This
can be easily understood by the activity given below.
4-l-
~!.ft

ACTIVITY 8.7
What you have to do: To study the temperature rise in
substances when given equal heat.
What you need: a small vessel for heating the fluid, laboratory
thermometer, 400ml water, 200ml vegetable oil, a heat
measuring pot of 200g, spirit lamp.
How to do you:
1. Put 200ml water in the vessel and find the temperature on
it with a thermometer.
2. Heat the vessel slowly with a spirit lamp and note its
temperature. Stir the water continuously with a spoon.
3. After five minutes, measure its temperature and find the
temperature rise.
4. Repeat the experiment separately with 400ml water and
200g vegetable oil.
What you noticed: (i) There is more temperature rise when
more heat is given. (ii) The heat increase was halved when the
same amount of heat was given to double mass of water (iii)
The heat increase was higher due to the same heat in 200ml
I vegetable oil as compared to 200ml water. From this we come
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to the conclusion that the increase in heat of a substance upon
giving equal heat depends on its mass and nature.
Heat unit
Notes
The unit of heat is calorie. A calorie is the amount of heat that
increases the temperature of 1g of water by 1 ° C.
Energy derived from food is measured in a large unit of kilo calories.
1 kilocalorie = 1000 calories.
Because heat is a form of energy, therefore its common unit is joule
1 calorie = 4.18 joule
Phase change
You know that every substance is solid, liquid or gas found in
three states. When heating a solid, at a particular temperature it
starts to turn into a liquid and it remains constant until the whole
solid melts. This particular temperature is called the melting point
of the solid.
Similarly, when the fluid is heated, it will begin to change into a
gaseous state by boiling at a particular temperature and will
remain constant until the entire fluid becomes a gas by boiling.
This temperature is called the boiling point of the fluid. Let us
study the process of phase change by heating ice.
49r-
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~

ACTIVITY 8.8

-
What you need to do: Study the phase change in water.
What you need: A beaker, a few pieces of ice, wire mesh,
tripod-stand, spirit-lamp, laboratory thermometer, iron stand.

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How to do you:
1. Place a wire mesh on the tripod stand and light the spirit
Notes lamp under it.
2. Put ice pieces in the beaker and place it on top of the mesh
and adjust the thermometer vertically in the ice.
3. After a while, note the temperature in the thermometer and
note the change in the beaker.
What you saw: (a) The ice starts melting at 0 ° C and the
temperature remains at 0 ° C until the entire ice is melted. (B)
After the whole ice turns into water, its temperature starts
increasing and increases to 100 ° C. (C) At 100 ° C, water
starts boiling and converts into steam and this temperature
remains constant.
Based on these observations, we come to the conclusion that the
melting point of ice is 0 ° C and the boiling point of water is 100 ° C.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.4

Fill in the blanks:
1. The amount of heat that increases the temperature of 1g of
water by 1 ° C is called ..........
2. One kilocalorie = ….... Calories
3. The melting point of ice is = ......... ° C.
4. The boiling point of water is = .......... ° C.

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8.5 TRANSFER OF HEAT
Have you ever thought that, why the top end of the spoon gets
hot soon after putting it in a teacup? Leave the hot object for a Notes
while, so why does it become cold? Or how does the heat from
the sun reach the earth?
You must have understood that heat actually transfers from high
temperature to low temperature. This transfer of heat occurs in
three different ways. They are (i) conduction (ii) convection, and
(iii) radiation. Let us study various methods of heat transfer
through some activities.
Thermal Conduction
.\9r-
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~

ACTIVITY 8.9
What You Have to Do: Study of Thermal Conduction.
What you need: An iron bar, stand, small iron nails, a big candle.
How to do:
1. Place the iron bar in the stand so that it is horizontal.
2. With the help of wax, stick nails at approximately equal
distances from its lower end.
3. With the help of a candle, heat the free end of the bar. See
what happens
You will see that the nail near the hot tip first falls down and
then the subsequent ones fall. The nail near the clasp falls at
the end.

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It is evident that from the hot part of the rod, slowly the heat
moves towards cold and in this process the particles of the rod
are affected respectively. As a result, the wax near the candle
Notes
first melts and then wax near the clasp melts in the end.
Thermal: If the transfer of energy is such that the particles in
the hot part give energy to the particles near them, then they pass
to the particles near them and thus the energy reaches the cold
part, then this mode of energy transfer is called thermal
conduction. .

ACTIVITY 8.10
What you have to do: See that not all substances are the same
conductors of heat.
What you need: One aluminum and one metal rod of similar
thickness, two stands, candles, small iron nails.
How to do:
1. Tighten aluminum in one stand and iron rod in the other
stand.
2. Place both of them in front of each other in such a way that
the free ends are almost touching.
3. On both rods, stick iron nails with wax at an equal distance
from the free ends.
4. Warm the free ends together with the help of a candle and
see from which rod the spikes fall first.

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Did you notice that the spikes fall from both rods, but spikes
fall from aluminum rods first. That is, we can say that aluminum
is a better conductor of heat than iron.
Notes
The transfer of heat to all solids is by conduction method.
In fact all metals like gold, silver, copper, brass, etc. are good
conductors of heat, but their conductivity varies. Most non-metals,
such as wood, plastics, textiles, leather, asbestos, etc., are not
good conductors of heat, that is, bad conductors.
We use both bad conductors and good conductors in our lives.
Our cooking utensils are conductors of heat, but the handles in
them are made of bad conductors material. If you think, you will
be able to find many such examples around you.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.5

1. What is the necessary condition for the transfer of heat from
one object to another?
2. Why does the iron handle is made of ebonite?
3. Were houses made of gold in gold lanka would have been
comfortable?
4. When the thermometer is placed in contact with a hot object,
why does the mercury climb up and stop?
Heat Convection
The transfer of heat into liquids and gases is mainly by convection.
Let the following activities to understand convection process:

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ACTIVITY 8.11
What you need to do: Study of heat convection in water.
Notes
What you need: A beaker, tripod stand, wire mesh, spirit lamp,
some crystals of potassium permanganate.
How to do you:
1. Fill the beaker with about half of the water and place it on
top of a tripod stand with a wire mesh.
2. Pour 4-5 crystals of potassium permanganate slowly into
the beaker of water.
3. Heat the beaker with a spirit lamp and watch the movement
of colored water rising from the crystals in the beaker.
What You Seen: The colored water rises above the bottom of the
beaker and turns from the surface of the water and returns to the
bottom. Do you know why this happens? In fact, water gets warmer
and becomes lighter, hence it rises and colder water comes down
to replace it. In this way a circle is formed in the water, which
keeps going until all the water comes to a temperature.
This process of transmission of heat, in which the hot liquid moves
itself by transferring heat towards the cold part, is called
convection.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.6

1. Would it be appropriate to install electric heat near the ceiling
or near the floor? Why?

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2. In which state of matter is there no heat convection? Why?

3. Is the transfer of heat in water by conduction or by convection?
Thermal Radiation Notes

Radiation is a method of transferring heat that does not require

any medium. The invisible rays of heat from the hot object spread
in all directions and if it falls on any other relatively cold material,
it makes it hot. Heat from the Sun reaches the Earth by radiation.
Most of the distance between the Sun and Earth is vacuum, so
the transfer of heat by radiation can also occur in vacuum.
If the distance of the object from the source of heat is increased,
then the amount of heat reaching it by radiation is reduced. This
is the reason that the further away the planet is from the Sun, the
lower the average temperature of its surface.
An important fact in relation to thermal radiation is that the
magnitude of thermal radiation absorbed by an object depends
on the color of that object. Let us ensure this fact by an activity.

ACTIVITY 8.12 J
What you need to do: To study the effect of surface colors on
the absorption of thermal radiation.
What you need: 4 tin boxes with the same volume and shape,
black, white, blue, yellow paint, brush, thermometer.
How to do you:
1. Paint the outer surface of the first box with yellow, second
with blue, third with white, and the fourth one with black.

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2. Put the same amount of water in the four boxes and keep
them in the sun for one hour.
Notes 3. Find the temperature of water in four boxes one by one.
What you noticed: That the lowest temperature rise occurred
in the white box and the highest in the black box.
Conclusion: We can say that the black surface has the highest
absorption of thermal radiation and the white surface the least.
Similarly, it can also be seen that black color is the best emitter
of heat and white color is the lowest.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.7
1. Why do we wear light colored clothes in summer and dark
colors in winter?
2. Between Mercury and Mars which of the planets have lower
average surface temperature? Why?
•
WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT
• A moving object has kinetic energy.
• The ability of an object to function due to its position is called
potential energy.
• The mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its kinetic
and potential energy.
• Heat is a form of energy.
I • The substance expands on heating and shrinks upon cooling.
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• Thermal diffusion is lowest in solids and highest in gases.

• Thermal propagation of liquids is used to measure heat with a
thermometer. Notes

• To increase the temperature of 1g of water to 1 ° C, 1 calorie

of heat is required.
• The standard unit of heat is joules. 1 calorie = 4.18 joules.
• At the melting point, the solid is converted into liquid and at
boiling point the liquid is converted into gas.
• Heat flows from the hot object to the cold object until the
temperature of both is equal.
• Three methods of heat transfer are conduction, convection,
and radiation.
• Darker objects are better absorbent and better emitters of
thermal radiation than light colored objects.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Write five examples of kinetic energy.
2. Write five examples of potential energy.
3. Explain by an example that mechanical energy is the sum of
potential energy and kinetic energy.
4. Write two effects of heat.
5. Use of liquids and gases to measure temperature is practical,
why?

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6. How will it be proved that different masses of a substance

when heated the same amount increases in temperature
depends on their mass.
Notes
7. To distinguish between temperature and heat.
8. What is the difference between conduction and convection?
9. Why do we not feel cold when wearing woolen clothes?
10. Describe an experiment that showed that the radiation of
heat by an object depends on the color of its surface.
11. Why are there storms? Explain

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

8.1
1. kinetic energy
2. kinetic energy potential energy
3. Mechanical
4. Potential
5. Two
8.2
1. Keep the bottle in warm water from the side of the mouth,
because doing so will spread the mouth.
2. No
3. Because the heat diffusion in solids is very low.

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4. In making thermometers, To mount an iron rim on the

wooden wheels of a horse cart.
5. Gas Notes

8.3
1. 30 ° C to 42 ° C
2. Laboratory thermometer
3. Mercury
4. Because in the medical thermometer, there is a small bend
in the tube just above the bulb.
8.4
1. 1 calorie
2. 1000 calories
3. 0 ° C
4. 100 ° C
8.5
1. There should be a temperature difference between both
the objects.
2. Because avonite is a bad conductor of heat.
3. No, because Sri Lanka is near the equator there is a lot of
heat. And because gold is a very good conductor of heat,
it would be very hot inside the houses.

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4. Because a small bend in the tube near the bulb of the

thermometer, is there due to which the mercury does not
fall down on its own.
Notes
8.6
1. Near the floor
2. In solid state
3. By convection
8.7
1. Because light colored clothing absorbs less of thermal
radiation, it protects us from heat during summer, while
dark colored clothing protects against heat radiation. They
absorb the most, hence give us more heat during winter.
2. Mars because Mars is at a greater distance than Mercury
from the Sun, due to which thermal radiation reaches there
less.

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Notes

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Light And Sound
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9 Notes

LIGHT AND SOUND

The knowledge we get about the world around us, is gained either
by seeing or by listening to us. Light is required to see, we cannot
see anything in darkness. Similarly, to listen, we need sound, if
there is no sound, will we listen? Think how the world would be
if there was no light and sound? Neither the colors of flowers
and butterflies, nor rainbow, nor the dance of peacocks, nor the
greenery of the earth, nor the starry sky plate, nor the chirping of
birds, nor the whirring of whirlpools, nor the thunder of clouds,
nor the sound of rivers, nor the movement of waterfalls , Neither
Ravindra Sangeet, nor Lata Mangeshkar's songs. Life would
become so dull.
To understand this world full of light and sound, let us try to
know light and sound.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
• know the sources of light;
• understand the reflection of light;
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• understand the refraction of light;

• understand sound, source of sound and transmission of sound.
Notes
9.1 SOURCES OF LIGHT
We see different things around us. Some of these objects have
their own light, such as the Sun. We call these objects astrological
objects. Unlike them, objects which do not emit their own light
are called lightless objects. Astrological objects are sources of
light, we can see the lightless objects through the light that
emanates from them.
The types of lightless objects
The objects which are made up of lightless objects, can be divided
into three classes in terms of transmission of light
(a) Transparent: which means those materials that can be
seen through. Light passes through materials easily.
These materials are called medium of light. Examples
of transparent substances are air, water, glass,etc.
(b) Permitter: materials which appear blurred across. Like
grated glass, oiled paper etc.
(c) Opaque: means materials that cannot be seen through.
They act as a barrier in the path of light. Like metals,
wood, stones etc.
Sources of natural and artificial light
Seeing the shining moon at night and its moonlight spread all
around, we may sometimes get the illusion that the moon is an

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astrological body.But you know that there is a human movement

on the surface of the moon. It does not have its own light.
Moonlight is the sunlight reflected by the moon. All the stars in
Notes
the sky, including the Sun, are natural sources of light and all the
planets, satellites and planets shine through the light of the stars.
To work in the dark, man has also created some artificial light
sources such as electric bulbs, fluorescent tubes, kerosene lamps,
gas fired lamps, etc.
Hot and Cold Light Sources
Most of the light sources have light as well as heat. All such
sources are called hot light sources. Sun, electricity, bulbs, burning
candles etc. are hot light sources. But in some light sources, most
of the energy is released in the form of light. We can touch these,
fluorescent tubes, firefly etc. are such light sources. These are
called cold light sources.
Differences in the intensity of light sources
Not all light sources are equally bright. We cannot see anything
in the light of a firefly, and many times more light comes out of
an electric bulb than a candle. As the light source moves away
from us, it starts to appear less bright. For this reason, many stars
in the sky are bigger and brighter than the sun, but we see them
as shining points.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.1

Fill in the blanks:
1. ........... is a transparent substance and ......... opaque.
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2. If you apply oil on the paper, it becomes …….

3. The moon reflects sunlight, ……….its own light
Notes 4. .......... is a cold light source.

9.2 MOVEMENT OF LIGHT

In a medium, light travels at a very fast speed from one place to
another. Its speed is 2.25 lakh kilometers per second in water
and 2 lakh kilometers per second in glass. Light can also run in
vacuum.
After all, there is only a few hundred kilometers between the
Earth and the Sun are vacuumed, yet the sunlight reaches the
Earth. In fact, the speed of light in vacuum is 3 lakh kilometers
per second. No object in our universe can move faster than this.
In one medium, light moves in a straight line from one place to
another. You can easily understand this fact through an activity.

ACTIVITY 9.1
What you need to do: See that light moves in a straight line.
What you need: a candle, a given needle, a thin rubber tube.
How do you do: Burn the candle and place it on the table. Try
to see the flame of the candle through the rubber hose giving it
different shapes. Can you see the candle without shaping the
rubber hose?
What You Seen: The candle is visible only when the rubber
tube is straight. The flame of the candle does not appear even

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when the tube is slightly shaped. From this we can conclude

that light moves in a straight line.
Due to the movement of light in a simple line, we see many Notes
natural phenomena happening, such as the formation of
shadows, solar eclipse and lunar eclipse etc.
Formation of shadows
If an opaque body is placed in the path of light spreading from a
light source, then on the other side of that light-blocking body
will form a black figure like it, which is called its shadow.
Shadows (as depicted in the picture) are caused by light moving
along a straight line. If the light source is not a point form, then
a less black shadow is formed around the more black shadow
formed in the middle.
If the light source is larger than the light-blocking body, the size
of the shadow decreases by increasing the distance of the curtain
and after a particular distance only the shadow is formed on the
screen. That is why the shadow of a bird flying at very high
height does not appear to be formed on the earth.
The size of shadow changes if the position of the light source is
changed by keeping the light-blocking body and curtain in place.
You may have also realized that your shadow is longer in the morning-
evening and less in the afternoon. As the sun rises above the horizon,
the length of the shadow decreases. In the afternoon when the sun is
just above the head, the shadow does not appear. Later in the
afternoon, as the sun sets, the length of the shadow increases.

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Notes

Fig. 9.1 Formation of shadow

When we compare the length of the shadow of different objects

at any time of the day, we come to know that the higher the
object is the longer its shadow becomes. We can use this fact to
find the height of a tree or building, as explained in the activity
below.

ACTIVITY 9.2
What you need to do: Find the height of the tree by comparing
the length of the shadows.
What you need: a meter scale, a long straight rod, a shovel
for digging.
How to do you: On a sunny day, straight away from the shadow
of the tree, drive the vertical rod. Measure the height (AB) of
the rod over the earth and the length of the rod and tree shadows
with the help of meter scale.

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Now since PQ and QR are proportional and AB and BC are

proportional.
PQR - ABC So we can do that PQ = AB
Notes
OR BC
Hence the height of the tree PQ - AB X QR
BC

Ground level

Fig. 9.2 Finding the height of the tree

Eclipse
You must have seen the solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse. These
events happening in the sky are also a game of shadows. Let us
know about them in some detail.
1. Lunar Eclipse
You know that the Earth revolves around the Sun on an elliptical
path and the moon also revolves on a similar path around the
earth. When the sun, earth and the moon come in a straight line
and the earth is between the sun and the moon, the shadow of the
earth falls on the moon, the part of the moon that shines with
sunlight loses its luster, without the rays of the sun. This is called
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lunar eclipse. Whenever the lunar eclipse occurs, it happens only

on the full moon day because on this day the earth comes between
the sun and the moon.
Notes

Fig. 9.3 Lunar Eclipse

2. Solar eclipse
When the sun, moon and earth come in a straight line and the
moon is between the sun and the earth, the shadow of the moon
falls on the earth. The sun is not fully visible to the people of the
part of the Earth where the moon is cast. Then there is a solar
eclipse for them. Whenever a solar eclipse occurs, it happens on
the day of the new moon, because the moon comes between the
earth and the sun on the new moon.
You must be wondering that when every full moon comes
between the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, and every New Moon
falls between the Moon, the Sun and the Earth, then why is there
not a lunar eclipse on every full moon and a solar eclipse on
every new moon? You probably know that the orbit of the earth
and the moon is not in the same plane. These are somewhat bent
relative to each other. Eclipses occur only when the moon is at

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Notes

Fig. 9.4 Solar Eclipse

the intersection of these two bodies on the full moon or new

moon day. It occurs only after a certain period of time, that can
be calculated.
You must have also heard that a total solar eclipse, that is, a solar
eclipse, in which the whole sun hides behind the moon, is an
extremely rare event. Often a partial solar eclipse occurs, while
solar lunar eclipse is a common occurrence. The reason for this
is that the diameter of the Earth's shadow at the distance of the
Moon is three times the diameter of the Moon, so the Moon
completely covers the Earth's shadow and it takes time for the
Moon to come out of it. The Moon is much smaller than the Sun.
It looks much larger in size as the Moon is much closer to the
Earth than the Sun. Such a situation is rare when the whole sun
can hide behind the moon.
Scientists study them at the time of solar eclipse and lunar eclipse
to get many types of information about the sun and the moon.
But you should keep in mind that even at the time of solar eclipse,

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one should not see the sun with naked eyes. Because even at the
time of solar eclipse, very intense rays keep coming out of it,
which can damage the eyes. If you want to see the sun at the time
Notes
of solar eclipse, then clean a big piece of glass and apply kajal
on it and then look at the sun from it.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.2

1. The formation of a shadow is based on which property of light?
2. On what days does solar eclipse and lunar eclipse occur?
3. Will the point form light source become shadow?
4. If the curtain is moved back while keeping the object and light
source stable, does the size of the shadow decrease or increase?
5. What are the relative positions of the Sun Moon and Earth in
a lunar eclipse?

9.3 REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Light moves in a medium, it moves in a straight line. So, to express
the path of light, we can use a simple line with an arrow symbol
above it. Such a simple line with an arrow symbol is called ray.
The ray shows the direction of moving light. The collection of
many rays is called a beam. There can be three types of beam:
(i) Parallel beam: A group of rays in which all the rays are
parallel to each other.
(ii) Convergent beam: It is the beam in which different rays
coming from different directions are concentrating
towards a point.
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(iii) Divergent beam: It is a beam from which different rays

propagate from a point in different directions.

When the light travelling in a medium strikes an object then according Notes

to the tendency of the object, it may have the following speeds.:

• If the object is opaque, some part of the light collides with the
object and it is absorbed into the object.
• But if the object is transparent, along with being absorbed
and dispersed, a large part of the light passes through that
object and passes to the other side.
• If the surface of the object is made smooth, shiny, and no light
can pass through it, then most of the light falling on the object
collides with it and returns as if the carrom pieces hit the wall of
the carrom-board. This process of returning light after hitting the
surface of the object is called reflection. Reflection of light is
according to certain rules, which are called laws of reflection.
Laws of Reflection
1. The ray coming from the direction of light, which we call
incident ray, strikes the reflecting surface (ie mirror) a ray
showing the direction of going back of light i.e. reflected ray
and point of incidence (the point above the mirror at which
the incident ray strikes) the line above (the line angled 90
from the bottom of the mirror), are all in the same plane.
2. The angle of reflection (the angle between the normal and
reflected ray) is equal to the angle of incidence (the angle
between the incident ray and the normal).

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Mirror and its types

Mirror in which you groom your hair everyday is a flat mirror. In
Notes the fairs, you will often see a room in which your ridiculously
distorted pictures are made in the mirrors. These are curved
mirrors. A special category of curved mirrors are spherical mirrors,
which can be understood as a fraction of a hollow glass sphere.
Spherical mirrors are of two types:
(i) Concave mirrors - on which the polished silver is mounted in
such a way that their suppressed internal surface acts as a mirror.
(ii) Convex mirrors - on which the silver is polished in such a
way that their outer, embossed surface serves as a mirror.
convex lens

light rays
r
--
concave lens

light rays

Fig. 9.5 (a) Concave Mirrors (b) Convex Mirrors

Properties of images made in mirrors- The study of the images

made in different types of mirrors mentioned above will be
interesting. Let us study the images made by these mirrors one
by one.
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ACTIVITY 9.3
What you need to do: Study of the image formed by a plane
Notes
mirror.
What you need: makeup table, inch tape candle, rectangular
piece of grinded glass.
How to do:
1. Draw a vertical line on the mirror of the makeup table and
mark it at half-a-meter distance with the help of inch tape.
Stand on the first half meter sign and see the position of
your image. Half a meter back then look at the image
position.
2. Measure the exact height of your friend. Standing in front
of a mirror, get the height of the image.
3. Burn a candle in front of the mirror. And try to get the
reflection of the converted light from the mirror on the worn
glass screen.
4. Raise your right hand up and see which of your hands raises
the reflection?
5. See whether the image head is up or it is upside down.
What you saw:
1. When we stand 1/2 a meter ahead of the mirror, the reflection
is formed 1/2 a meter behind the mirror and when we stand
1 meter ahead the reflection is formed 1 meter back.

I
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2. The height of the image in the mirror is exactly equal to the

height of the friend.
3. The screen is shining on the worn glass screen, but the image
Notes
is not formed.
4. When we raise our right hand up, the image of our left
hand raises.
5. Our image also stands upright.
Conclusion: From all these observations we can conclude that
the characteristics of the image formed in a plane mirror are as
follows.-
1. The reflection of the mirror is formed as far back as the
object is placed.
2. The image size is exactly equal to the size of the object.
3. The mirror image cannot be taken on screen, so it is an
upcoming image.
4. It is turned to the left in the image which is on our right
side, ie, the image gets lateralized.
5. Image is made straight.

ACTIVITY 9.4 l
What you need to do: To study images made of convex
reflective surfaces.
How you need: a shiny steel ladle.
How to do:
1. See the Image of your face on the outer, embossed surface
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of the ladle. Is it smaller than the actual size of your face?

It is forming ahead or behind the surface. Is the image
becoming erect or inverted?
Notes
2. Bring the ladle near the face and see if the size is small or
big? Does the image come near or go away?
What you noticed:
1. Small, straight, reflection image is formed behind the
surface from the convex surface. It is a virtual image.
2. By bringing the ladle close to the face, the size of the image
increases somewhat and it comes close but the image can
never be equal to the actual size of the object.
Conclusion: From this we can conclude that the surface in a
convex mirror forms a small, straight virtual image behind the
mirror. As we move the object towards the mirror, the image
also comes towards the mirror and its size increases.

ACTIVITY 9.5 I
What you need to do: Study the reflection made of a concave
surface.
What you need: a big spread steel ladle.
How to do:
1. Hold the ladle while keeping the inside of the ladle facing
towards you and look at your face (keep the ladle at the
maximum distance from you). What does the image look

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like? small or big? Direct or reverse? Is it ahead or back?

Try to touch it, can you touch it?

Notes
2. Bring the ladle slowly towards yourself. Image size is
decreasing or increasing? Is it coming near or moving away?
What are the other characteristics changing?
3. Keep your finger very close to the ladle and see its reflection.
Is it small or big? Is it upside down or straight ahead of the
mirror or at the back?
What you saw:
1. The inside surface of the ladle, which acts like a concave
mirror, is initially a small, inverted image in front of the
mirror. It can be touched, so it can be taken on screen and is
a real image.
2. As the face approaches the ladle, the image gets far from
the ladle and its size increases. But the image formed is
always inverted and it is the real image.
3. When you place the finger very close to the ladle, its straight,
big image is formed behind the ladle.
From this we conclude that:
1. A concave mirror has a particular distance, called the focus
distance. When the object is placed in front of the mirror
beyond this distance, the reverse image is formed in front of
the mirror.
2. By increasing the distance of the object from the mirror, the
image moves towards the mirror and it becomes smaller.
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3. When placing the object between the focus distance and the
mirror, its direct, virtual, large image is formed behind the
mirror.
Notes
Uses of Mirrors
1. For viewing face, devices such as periscope cameras use flat
mirrors to change the path of light.
2. Used for shaving, mirrors used by dental doctors, concave
mirrors in vehicles headlight or search light etc.
3. The mirror that is placed near the bus driver to see the back
traffic is a convex mirror.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.3

1. An incident light beam makes an angle of 30 ° on a plane
mirror. What will be the value of its relative reflection angle?
2. If we moved one step towards the plane mirror, how many
steps would be reduced between us and the reflection?
3. What image is formed in a plane mirror, virtual or real?
4. How to recognize plane, convex and concave mirrors without
touching them, if they look alike?

9.4 REFRACTION OF LIGHT

In a medium, light moves along a simple linear path. But when it
deviates from its simple linear path on a surface separating a
medium. This divergence of light is called refraction and follows
certain rules, called laws of refraction.

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Laws of Refraction
1. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal, to the interface
Notes
of any two given mediums; all lie in the same plane.
2. When the light ray passes from rarer medium to denser medium
it bends towards the normal and when the ray enters a denser
medium to the rarer medium it moves away from the normal.
(A) Transmission of light in a rectangular piece of glass
When light passes through a rectangular piece of glass then two
times refraction occurs. The first is when the light beam enters
the glass from the air on the lateral AB. In this refraction, it turns
towards the normal. And secondly when it exits the glass to air
on lateral T then it moves away from the normal. It can be easily
seen here that the output angle is equal to the incidence angle.
That is, the output ray remains parallel to the incident ray. There
is no angular deviation, only it diverges slightly from the path of
the incident ray.
(b) Transmission of light in a glass prism

Fig. 9.6 Transmission of light in a rectangular piece of glass

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Prism is a solid whose top and base are triangular and sides are
rectangular. Even when passing through a prism, light refracts
twice like a pellet. But the total result of these two refractions is
Notes
that the output beam rotates at an angle relative to the incident
ray, which is called the deviation angle. The result is that the
incident ray rotates towards the top of the prism and proceeds
towards the base of the prism.
Lens
A piece of transparent material, which has at least one spherical
surface, is called a lens. Two types of lenses are commonly used:
(i) Convex lens - both of which have convex surfaces.
(ii) Concave lens - both surfaces of which are concave.
1. Refraction of light in lenses
We can consider lenses to consist of several prism segments. In
the convex lens, the base of this prism segments is towards the
principal axis if a parallel beam passes through it, on the other
hand it will be released as a central beam due to the bending of
the rays towards the base of the prism segments i.e. the main
axis. Convex lens converts parallel beam into a point beam, hence
is called a concentric lens.
In the concave lens, the bases of the prism-segments are beyond
the principal axis, so a parallel light beam passing through them
emanates as a divergent beam. Therefore a concave lens is called
a divergent lens.

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2. Use of Lenses
You have fitted lenses with microscopes, telescopes, glasses,
Notes cameras and projectors. Must have seen a variety of light-
instruments have been developed by combining mirrors and
lenses. The convex lens can be used as a magnifier.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.4

I. Fill in the blanks of the following sentences:
1. When a light beam moves from a dense medium to a rarer
medium, the value of the angle of refraction is .......... from
the reflection angle.
2. There is ……... the refraction of light in a rectangular glass
tube, yet there is no angular deviation.
3. In passing through a glass prism, the light beam from the
base of the prism moves towards the…….
4. A convex lens is a ........ lens and a concave lens is a ........ lens.
5. …….. Lenses can be used to burn paper.

9.5 EYE AND VISION DEFECTS

The human eye is an amazing spherical sense organ of about one
inch in diameter. The main components of its structure are shown
in the accompanying figure. The translucent layer in the front is
a small hole in the black, blue, green or brown round iris just
behind the cornea called the pupil. The iris shrinks into darkness
and increases the size of the pupil and in lights it reduces its size.

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The eye lens, made of fibrous transparent material behind the pupil,
is controlled between the ciliary muscles. When looking at distant
objects, the ciliary muscles reduce the thickness of the eye lens by
Notes
remaining in a relaxed state. That is, the curvature increases the
radius or focus distance, and when looking at a nearby object, they
increase the thickness of the lens by putting pressure on it. That is,
curvature reduces the radius or focus distance. Thus, irrespective of
the distance the object is placed from the eye, the reflection of the
lens becomes its image on the retina by adjusting the distance. The
image of the retina is converted into electrical waves and reaches
the brain through the light nerves.
(3) Iris

(7) Optic
(2) Pu · Nerve

Fig. 9.7 Structure of the human eye

Visibility defect
If for some reason the thickness of the eye lens increases
permanently, then the rays coming from a distant object focus on
a point between the lens and retina, rather than focus on the retina
and the object does not appear clear (Figure 9.19). This defect of
vision is called myopia. To overcome this defect one has to apply
glasses with a concave lens of suitable focus distance. (Fig. 9.19).

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Ciliary muscles lose their ability to stress the lens with increasing
age. Then the image of the object placed nearby is not formed on
the retina instead it is formed at some point behind the retina and
Notes
the object is not clearly visible (Figure 9.19). This defect of vision
is called far-sightedness. A convex lens of suitable focus distance
is used to correct this defect (Figure 9.19).

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.5

1. Whether the focus distance of the eye lens changes
automatically according to the distance of the object?
2. Why is nothing visible when you go from absolute light to dark?
3. If the image of a distant object becomes ahead of the retina,
then is there an myopia defect in the eye?
4. Which lens is used to correct myopia?
9.6 Sound
Sound is the second important form of energy after light, which
connects us to our environment and gives us a sense of the changes
in it. Hearing the creaking of the door, we understand whether
someone came in or went out. Sitting in the house, standing
outside, the murmur of the leaves of the tree makes us understand
that there is strong wind. Through the use of sounds, we talk to
each other and convey our thoughts and feelings to each other.
Some sounds relieve the tension of the mind and some increase
the tension. How do these different kinds of sounds around us
arise? How does it travel from place to place? How are you heard?
What are the basic differences between different types of sounds?
We will try to know all this in this section.
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Sound source
The next time you sing or talk to someone, place a palm over
your neck. What do you feel? There is vibration in the throat to Notes
make a sound. In fact, every source of sound is a vibrating object.
Usually these vibrations do not appear. But they can be made
visible or experienced. Touch the school bell immediately after
hammer, you will be able to experience these vibrations. If you
hit the drum by putting some thermocol pieces on the drum of
the school band, you can see those bullets dancing up and down
with the sound.
Vibration or oscillation
The movement of an object repeatedly around its middle position
is called oscillation or vibration. Let us look at a simple oscillating
motion and study it.

ACTIVITY 9.6 J
What you need to do: Study a simple oscillating motion.
What you need: A small piece of stone with a strong thread, a
nail.
How to do you:
1. Tie a stone on one end of the thread.
2. Put a stone tied with a thread and hang it on the nail by
knocking the nail in the wall.
3. Move the stone slightly aside and study its speed.

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 Light and Sound
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What you saw: Leaving the stone from position B, it crosses

the middle position A to C and then returns to B. This type of
motion is frequent and finally the stone stops at point A.
Notes
The stone hanging on the thread repeatedly comes to either
side of a midpoint. Hence its speed is oscillation speed.

/ I
/ I
I
I
I
) I
I
I
I

Fig. 9.8 Oscillation speed

The following facts are worth knowing about this motion.

1. Stone from A to B, B to A, A to C and C back to A, this whole
cycle is called an oscillation.
2. The time taken by stone to complete an oscillation is called
its oscillation period.
3. The oscillation that a stone completes in a second is its
oscillation called frequency. The unit of frequency is hertz.
4. The maximum displacement of a stone from the middle
position A to one side (AB or AC)is called oscillation.

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Transmission of sound
When the source of sound vibrated, the molecules of air in its
contact also start vibrating accordingly. These molecules generate
Notes
vibrations in the molecules near to them and this cycle continues. In
this way, the sound travels from one place to another. This means
that a medium is needed for the sound to travel. Then the medium
should be solid, liquid or gas. Sound in vacuum cannot travel from
one place to another. There is no atmosphere on the moon, so we
cannot talk directly to each other on the surface of the moon.
Characteristics helpful in identifying different types of sounds
Hit a drum gently first, then hit it again with force. In which case
the vibrations have more amplitude? When does the sound get
louder? Obviously, the higher the amplitude of the vibrations,
the greater the intensity of the sound.
One end of a rubber band is stuck in the nail and hold the other
end in the left hand. Listen to its sound by producing vibrations
in it with the right hand. Pull the rubber band to increase tension
and make it vibrate again and hear the sound. In which case a
more loud sound is produced? Increasing the tension in the rubber
band increases the frequency of its vibrations. As a result, the
sound produced may be loud. This property of sound is called
pitch. The voice of the girl is more than the voice of the boy.
The quality of sound that causes us to recognize a person by his
voice is called Timbre.
Therefore: we can say that loudness, pitch and timbre are special
properties that make sounds different from each other.
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Music and noise

The sequence of sounds coming in a particular order which
Notes produces a pleasing effect on the ears is called music.
Noises that come in an intermittent order that are distasteful and
cause tension are called noise.
Ultrasonic and Infrasonic Sounds
Normal human ears hear only the frequencies of 20Hz to 20000
Hz. Sounds of less than 20 Hz are infrasonic waves and sounds
of more than 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves.
Eye and ear protection
The eye and ear are our most important knowledge centers.
Therefore, we should take special care of their safety. As a straw
should not be placed in the ear, it can damage the eardrum. Eyes
should be protected from strong sunlight and dust. Sunglasses should
be worn. No medicine should be put in the eye or ear without
doctor's advice. Eyes should be washed daily with cold water.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.6

1. An object vibrates 50 in 10 seconds. What is its frequency?
2. An oscillator runs 50 mm from one end to the other. What is
its oscillation?
3. Why not put a straw in the ear?
4. Can you hear the sound of 60,000 () frequency?
5. Will there be difficulty in talking to each other on the moon?

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WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• Light is that form of energy that helps us see.
Notes
• The objects from which their own light is emitted are
astrological bodies, called sources of light.
• There can be three types of non-light objects
(a) Transparent through which they can be seen,
(b) Translucent -who have blurred view
(c) Opaque - through which one cannot see.
• Light, because it moves along a simple line, if an opaque
object comes in its path, then its shadow is formed on the
other side of the object.
• Lunar eclipse occurs from the shadow of the Earth on the moon
and solar eclipse from the shadow of the moon on the Earth.
• Smooth bright surface is called a mirror, because most of the
light falling on it gets reflected. Generally, three types of
mirrors are used - plane, convex and concave.
• When placing objects in some special positions with a concave
mirror, their inverted images are formed in front of the mirror,
which can be taken on screen. Such an image is called image.
• The light beam deviates from its linear path upon entering
from one medium to another. This deviation from the simple
linear path of the light beam is called refraction.
• A convex lens is a concentric lens and a concave lens is a
divergent lens.

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• The eyes are the part of our body from which we see.
• If the eye does not see the distant object clearly, then there is
Notes
a defect of myopia which is due to increased thickness of the
eye-lens. To overcome this, use a concave lens.
• If the eye cannot see the nearby object clearly, then there is a
defect of hyperopia. Convex lenses are used to correct this defect.
• The source of the sound is a vibrating object and a medium is
needed for sound to travel.
• Ear is our second important knowledge after eye, we should
be careful to protect it.
• Loudness, pitch, and timber are special properties that make
sounds different from each other.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Write the names of the four natural sources of light.
2. Write the names of five man-made sources of light.
3. A 3m long shadow of a tree is formed in the sun. At the same
time 1m long rods shadow of 50cm long is formed. What is
the height of the tree?
4. At what time of day is the shadow size lowest?
5. Why is the moon not considered an astrological body?
6. Why do the shadows of birds flying at high altitudes not form
on the earth?
7. Why do we not see a circular lunar eclipse?

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8. Why is there no eclipse on every full moon or new moon day?

9. Why are some light sources are cold and some warm?
10. What is the difference between real and virtual images? Notes

11. What does lateral change mean? Write any three letters in
the English alphabet, whose images do not show any lateral
changes?
12. What are the types of spherical mirrors? Which spherical
mirror can make both real and virtual images?
13. Write three properties of the image formed by a plane mirror.
14. If a person's glasses have a concave lens, then his eye has
which vision defect?
15. What is the difference between reflection and refraction?
16. Why do we not hear bats scream?
17. A whale fish says something to his friend located 75km away.
How long will the voice reach its friend? (When the velocity
of sound is 1500ms-1.)
18. Draw a nominated picture of the human eye and explain its
working method.
19. Draw a nominated picture of the human ear and explain its
working method.
20. Write one use of each of the following:
(i) plane mirror (ii) convex mirror (iii) concave mirror (iv)
convex lens (v) concave lens
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Learn more
The story of Jals Verne in "Captain Haterus's Adventure Trips" ' In
Notes a 48° temperature condition, In order to overcome the discomfort of
the troubled team when no means of burning the fire were found,
the Dr. Clobony used to burn the fire by making the transparent
section of ice in the form of a convex lens and focusing the sun's
rays on dry wood and straw. The use of ice to light a fire seems
strange, isn't it. But you too can try this experiment. Fill a large
bowl with water and store it in the fridge. Take out the ice lens
by heating the bottom of the bowl slightly, focus the rays of sun
from this lens on a paper. Paper will start burning.
The famous scientist Archimedes was the courtier of King Hiero
of Syracuse, a small country in Greece. It is said that when the
neighboring country attacked Syracuse, Archimedes placed large
mirrors on the Syracuse hills, sun rays focused on the boats of
the enemy and burned their sails and dipped them by throwing
stones with special slings. Can you tell which mirrors Archimedes
would have used?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

9.1
1. glass, wood
2. translucent
3. it does not have
4. Firefly
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9.2
1. On the quality of light moving in a straight line
2. Solar eclipse new moon and lunar eclipse-full moon Notes
3. No
4. It is low
5. Earth, Sun and Moon are in a straight line.
9.3
1. 60
2. Two-step
3. virtual
4. The image of the object in front of the plane mirror will
always be the same size as of the object. In a convex mirror,
the image of the objects in front is formed small and
straightened and the image of the object increases by
bringing it close to the mirror but never equal to the actual
size of the object.
The image of the object in front of a concave mirror is
large and inverted, but as the object is brought near it, the
image becomes straight and small.
9.4
1. more
2. twice
3. and
4. convergent, divergent
5. convex
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9.5
1. yes
Notes 2. because the pupil of the eye is very small at that time.
3. Yes,
4. Concave lens
9.6
1. 5 vibrations / second
2. 25 km
3. Eardrum may burst
4. No
5. Will not be able to talk due to lack of medium.

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Notes

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 221

Electricity Current And Magnetism
CLASS-VIII

10 Notes

ELECTRIC CURRENT
AND MAGENETISM

Today's era is the era of communication. It is impossible to

imagine this era without electricity. It seems like we have an
unbreakable relationship with electricity from birth to birth. Do
you know who is the creator of the electricity we all use? We are
all familiar with the lightning in the sky and the roar of the clouds.
What is this lightning in the sky?
Suppose the day is about to hide, clouds are roaring in the sky
and suddenly the electricity of the house disappears. Your younger
brother rubs the air balloon with his shirt and brings it to the wall,
but today that balloon does not stick to the wall, it falls down. You
take off your sweater in the dark but today neither the sound of chit-
chit nor the small sparks are seen. You take out the torch to escape
the darkness, but today it is also cheating, it seems its cells have
stopped working. There are machines running generators in your
neighbourhood factory. Bulbs are seen burning in the factory and
the noise of the generator and machine is heard. You start thinking
something. After studying this lesson you will be able to get
answers to many of those questions that arise in your mind.
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<@>

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Notes
• explain electric charge and electron theory;
• Why does a freely suspended magnet always stay in one
direction?
• Get to know about electric current;
• explain the use of magnets; and
• Be able to differentiate between direct current and alternating
current.
10.1 STATIC ELECTRIC CHARGE
If the weather is clear, try this experiment. Rub the plastic comb
with your dry hair and bring it near the small pieces of paper.
You will see that the pieces of paper are drawn towards the comb
and stick to it. Similarly, if you rub the air filled balloon with
your shirt and take it near the wall, then this balloon is pulled by
your hands and sticks to the wall. Why does this happen? When
we rub things, electric charge comes on them. This type of
electricity is called static electricity. With this type of electricity,
2600 years ago, scientist Thales of Greece made many
discoveries. Other scientists may have also studied about it, but
Thales wrote down his observations, so the credit for this
discovery goes to him only. After this, there was no significant
discovery in this area for 2100 years. About 500 years ago,
William Gilbert conducted experiments related to static electricity
I and first used the terms 'electric force' and 'electric attraction'.
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In 1752 AD, Benjamin Franklin proved that lightning in the sky

is actually due to electricity. Through his experiment, he brought
the electricity produced in the clouds to the earth through a wet
Notes
kite's thread. He discovered two types of electric charges - positive
and negative. After Franklin's experiments, scientists kept trying
to find the source of electric charge for hundreds of years. Finally,
in the early twentieth century, the electron-theory that solved
this question became developmental.
Electron theory
According to this theory, every object consists of extremely fine
particles, which are called atoms. It was found by experiments
that the atom itself is made up of two types of very fine electrical
particles. Out of this, one type of particle is called a proton, which
has a positive electric charge and another type of particle is called
an electron, which has a negative electric charge. The negatively
charged protons in the nucleus of each atom keep circulating in
negative orbits around the nucleus. That is why atoms are called
'electrically neutral'. When we rub two objects together, the
electrons of one object transfer to another. The object that loses
the electron becomes dense. Conversely, the object on which
electrons move becomes negatively charged. Thus we see that
there are two types of charge - (1) positive charge and (2) negative
charge. According to tradition, the charge with which the glass
rod is charged when the glass rod is rubbed with silk is called
positive charge. In contrast, the charge in which the scale is
charged when the plastic scale is rubbed with wool is called
negative charge. To know how these charges behave mutually,
let's do an activity:
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 223
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 Electric Current and Magnetism
CLASS-VIII
J\llr-
~~
ii"

ACTIVITY 10.1
What you have to do: To study the interaction between
Notes
charges.
What you need: Two glass sticks, plate, test tube, two plastic
scales, rods, piece of silk, wool, thread, stand.
How to do: Charge a glass rod by rubbing it with silk and then
hang it from the stand like in the picture. Charge another glass
rod in the same way and bring it near the charged end of the
first rod. What do you see? The hanging rod starts to run away
from the other rod. Repeat the same experiment by rubbing
both plastic scales with wool. What happens this time?
Conclusion: What do you conclude from this? It is not that
homogeneous charges repel each other.
But why so?
Now rub a glass rod with silk and hang it again like before.
Like before, rub the plastic scale with wool and bring it near
the stand to the charged end of the hanging glass rod. What do
you see this time? Now the glass rod does not run away from
the plastic scale, but is attracted to it. What do you conclude
from this? Obviously, heterogeneous charges attract each other.
You know that not all objects have the same structure. Observe
the design of the electric wires we use on our homes. It has a
rubber or plastic shell mounted on the outside of the metal wire.
I Watch the coil of the electric motor or the tube light coil in the
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choke carefully. It has enamel paint on it. Do you know why this
shell or cover is mounted on metal wires? An electric charge in a
metal wire flows easily, while rubber, plastic or enamel does not
Notes
allow charge to flow through themselves.
Lightning in the sky and roaring of clouds
In childhood, you would be scared to hear the fierce noise of the
cloud roaring along with the lightning in the sky and there would
be a desire to know about them. Let's understand when lightning
flashes in the sky?
The lightning in the sky is often caused by rising of hot winds in
hot weather. The hot winds carry the tiny particles of water up to
the clouds when they rise rapidly. When water particles and
snowflakes fly at a rapid rate in the air, they become charged due
to friction from the air. Small positively charged snow-crystals
fly up to the top of the clouds and the negatively charged hailstone
goes under the cloud bottom. When two clouds of charges of
opposite nature come close to each other, their charges do not
remain constant, but they move from one cloud to another at
high speed through air. This makes the air conductor.
Consequently, a large amount of electric charge is immersed by
the conductor air for a short period of time. This electric
immersion is seen in the sky in the form of a very sharp line of
light (lightning), which is also known as lightening. Due to this
electric immersion, high intensity compression and rarefaction
occurs in the air, due to which there is a loud sound, which is
called cloud roaring. With every lightning there is a thunderclap.
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Although the lightning generated by the charge in the sky is visible

for a very short time, it produces a large amount of light and
heat. Can you guess the harm from lightning? Sometimes there
Notes
is lightning between the clouds and the earth, due to which the
buildings and trees are highly damaged.
The materials from which electric charge flows easily are called
electric conductors. In contrast, these substances in which charge
cannot flow are called insulators. All metals are electrical
conductors. Our body is also an electrical conductor. Water and
moisture are also electrical conductors. Rubber, plastic, dry wood,
enamel paint are some examples of insulating materials. Dry air
is insulated, while moist air is not insulated. This is why static
electricity is used only in the dry season. If there is moisture in
the weather, when glass or plastic rod are rubbed, it gets charged
and gets exposed soon. Consider why this happens.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) There are two types of charge ……… and …….
(ii) Homogeneous charges have …… and heterogeneous
charges……..
(iii) The phenomenon of excessive electric immersion
between two clouds is called ……..
(iv) When charged by friction, both objects result in ........
but in nature ......... take charge.

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(v) The objects in which charge flows easily are called.......

(vi) The objects with which the charge does not flow are
called ………. Notes
2. Choose the correct answer:
(i) Who is the electric conductor among them
(a) Chalk (b) Rubber (c) Dry air (d) Lemon juice
(iii) Who is resistant to electricity
(a) Brine (b) Copper (c) Zinc (d) Dry Air

10.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT

We read that electric charge flows through a metal wire. The
flow of charge is called 'electric current'. Just think, what is the
necessary condition for the flow of electric current from a
conductor? To understand this, consider two utensils connected
to tube AB in the picture. From which point in this tube, water
will flow towards which point? How long will the flow of water
in the tube remain constant? What should be done to keep the
flow of water in the tube? If the pressure of water at the point A
of the tube remains higher than the pressure of water at the point
B, the water can flow continuously from A to B in the tube. For
this, there should be constant supply of water at point A.
Similarly, to maintain the flow of electrons in a conductor AB, it
is necessary that there is a continuous supply of electrons from
point A to the end point B. Electric cell is one such device. In
electrical cells, there can be a continuous supply of electrons at
one end of the cell (minus terminal) by chemical reactions.
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Volta was the first one who made an electric cell, which is called
a voltaic cell. This cell has a historical significance. In practice it
is not used anywhere. You can also make your own electric cell
Notes
like Volta.
~-r-
~s
~

..__

ACTIVITY 10.2
What you need to do: Make an electric cell from lemon.
What you need: Waste dry cell, knife, sanding paper, two wires
40 cm long electric, 1.5V torch bulb, torch bulb holder, lemon.
How do you do: Break the dry cell and remove its carbon rod.
Cut the zinc of the cell into a vessel about 1cm wide. Rub this
bandage thoroughly with sandpaper and clean it. Connect the
two ends of the bulb holder with two electrical wires. Place
the bulb in the bulb holder. Tie one of the free ends of both
wires with a zinc strip and connect the other with a carbon rod
like in the picture. Make two holes at some distance in the
lemon. In one of the hole, zinc plate and in the other hole, be
sure to sink carbon sticks. Look at the torch bulb carefully.
You will see that the torch bulb is burning slowly.
But why so?
What does the burning of a bulb mean? The bulb can burn
when electric current flows through it, that is, when charge
flows continuously. The charge flows continuously only when
electrons continuously reach the zinc strip. In fact, there is a
chemical reaction between lemon juice and zinc within the
lemon, due to which chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy.
I
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Dry Cell
If you leave the cell for a couple of hours late, then you will
observe that the bulb stops burning. In fact these cells have many Notes
defects. These defects are removed and usable dry cells are made.
To study the structure of a dry cell, take a simple dry cell used in
a torch and observe its various parts according to the activity
given below.

ACTIVITY 10.3
What you need to do: Study the structure of the dry cell.
What you need: Used dry cell (of a large torch), knife.
How to do it: Cut the cell carefully. Look at its parts carefully.
Match the parts of the cell with the given diagram.

node
(Zinc Inner Case)

Cathode
(Graphite Rod)

Paste of Mn02 ,
NH,CI, and Carbon

Fig. 10.1 Dry cell structure

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Just think: Is it right to call this cell a dry cell? In the new dry
cell, actually the material between the carbon rod and the plate in
zinc happens to be wet. If this substance becomes dry due to
Notes
evaporation, then the cell becomes useless without being used. This
is why the cell is sealed from outside to prevent evaporation.
You must have realized that dry cells are very heavy and
expensive. If more electric current is required, they become
useless very soon. Due to their large size, their use is not
considered practical. Hence, the search for a good source of
electric current continued.
Accumulator cell
In 1860, Plante made an 'accumulator cell' from the plates of
lead. We use this improved form of cell in our car, bus etc. You
may be confused with the name of 'accumulator cell' and think
that the storage of electricity in the accumulator cell would be
exactly like that of fruits and vegetables in cold stores. It is not
really right to think so.
In the structure of the accumulator cell, a vessel is filled with
dilute sulfuric acid and two types of plates are places in it
respectively. In charged state cells also have some plates of lead
peroxide and the same number of other lead plates. Due to the
different chemical composition of both the plates, this cell also
provides electric current like other electric cells.
When the accumulator attains electric current by connecting the
positive and negative plates of the cell to a conductor, lead sulfate
is collected on both its plates. When the cells are charged again,

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the layer of lead sulfate is removed. And lead is collected on the

negative plate and lead peroxide on the positive plate. Two
precautions are very important in the use of these cells:
Notes
1. The fluid should be completely filled in these cells.
2. These cells should always be kept in charge state. Their voltage
should never be less than 108V.
You must have seen electronic wrist watches. Do you know what
cell is used in them? If possible, look at these cells carefully at a
watch shop. These cells are button-shaped, with a voltage of
1.35V. They contain mercury oxide or silver oxide and zinc
electrodes. These are used in rooms and hearing aids in addition
to clocks, where low load and small size are important, but there
is less demand for electric current.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.2

1. What is the voltage of the following cells
(i) Dry cell (ii) Button cell
2. Name a cell that can be charged again and again?
3. What would you do to conduct current in a wire?
10.3 MAGNET
An incident took place around 2800 years ago at a place called
Magnesia in the country of Greece. While grazing the sheep, a
shepherd felt that a rock was pulling his iron cap studded stick
towards it. He took some pieces of rock in which miraculous
properties were found. In addition to pulling the iron on itself, it

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 Electric Current and Magnetism
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also had an amazing quality that it used to stop in one direction

when hanging freely. Due to this property, this mineral rock was
called LodeStone (meaning, which indicates direction). Due to
Notes
being found in a place called Magnesia, this mineral is also called
magnetite. Perhaps later it came to be called Magnet. In Hindi it
is called chumbak. Magnets found in rock form are called 'natural
magnets'. It is not convenient to use this magnet in practice.
Magnet has become an integral part of our life. We make different
types of magnets according to our needs and using them.
Find the objects in which magnets are used in our home and nearby
neighborhoods. If possible, look at those magnets carefully. Most
of your magnets will look like the figures given below.

Ring Magnet

Horseshoe
Magnet
Magnetic Needle

Fig. 10.6 Magnets of different shapes:

ACTIVITY 10.4
What you need to do: Study the magnetic properties of the magnet.
What you need: a rod magnet, thread, stand
How to do: You should tie a magnet to the center and hang it
on a stand or peg like a picture. The stand should not be of
iron and there should not be any iron items nearby. The magnet

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will stop in a while. Mark the direction in which the magnet

rests. Now slowly position the magnet in any other direction.
Observe the direction in which it stops at last.
Notes
What you saw: You will see that the magnet always stays in
one direction (north-south).
Conclusions: The tip of the stagnant magnet pointing towards
the north is called the north-pole and the tip pointing towards
the south is called the south-pole.
•
- A-
- '
I
-
•
I

'
•
I
,

-~ -

Fig. 10.7 Basic properties of magnet

ACTIVITY 10.5
What you have to do: to study the forces between the magnetic
poles.
What you need: Two magnet rods, thread, stand.
How to do you: Like in previous activity, hang both magnet
rods from the stand one by one and write 'N' and 'S' on their
north-poles and south poles respectively. Leave one magnet

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hanging from the stand and hold the other magnet in your hand,
like the picture, bring its north pole in close proximity to both
poles of the hanging magnet, take care that both magnets should
Notes
not touch each other. Note down your observations. Repeat
your experiment with the south pole of the second magnet as
well and observe the observations carefully.
What you saw: The north-poles of both magnets repel each
other, the south-poles of both magnets repel each other.
However, the north-pole of one magnet attracts the south-pole
of another magnet.
In short, these conclusions can also be written as a rule that
repulsion occurs in homogeneous poles and attraction in
heterogeneous poles.
Compare the stated rules for the charges of this rule. What
similarities do you find in them?
Perhaps you are thinking that charges and magnetic poles have
the same properties of attraction and repulsion. Then why does
the magnet always hang in the north-south direction while the
charged rod stops in any direction? If we tell you that the earth
on which we all live behaves like a giant magnet itself, you might
be surprised to hear this. But this is a fact. Now you have studied
the laws of attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles. If
the Earth is a giant magnet, it must also have two poles. The
south-pole of the Earth's magnet is near the geographical north-
pole of the earth (near northern Canada) and the north-pole is
near the geographical south pole of the Earth.

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Uses of magnets
1. Because of the property of always staying in the north-south
direction, the magnet is used to make a compass to know
Notes
directions.
2. Due to its quality of attracting iron objects. Magnets are used
to separate iron from litter.

Fig. 10.9: Compass

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.3

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Free-hanging magnet always stays in the …… direction.
(ii) In homogeneous poles ..... and heterogeneous
poles.....each other.
(iii) Earth behaves like a huge …….
(iv) Because it tells direction the natural magnet is called......
(v) The magnetic ……... pole of the Earth is located near its
geographical north pole.
2. Why is a compass needle called a magnetic needle?
3. What is the use of a magnetic needle? Which properties of
magnets does it use?

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10.4 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING

CURRENT
Notes You know that when we add an electric cell to a closed circuit,
such as a dry cell, a permanent current starts flowing in the metal
wires of the circuit. Such a steady flow of electric current in one
direction is called 'Direction Current' or DC. But in our homes,
shops and factories, direct current is not used to light bulbs or to
run electric motors and other electrical appliances. We use
Alternate Current or AC 220 volts in most of our works. Do you
know why it is called an alternative? This current starts from
zero and flows in one direction, reaching its maximum magnitude
and starts decreases and reaches zero. At this point the direction
of current becomes opposite and decreases to zero, reaching the
maximum magnitude from zero as before. This cycle of electric
current moving in one direction, decreasing to zero, then
increasing to zero in the opposite direction and then decreasing
to zero is repeated 50 times in one second.
This is why the frequency of alternating current used in our homes
is 50 hertz. The graph shows the direct current and the alternating
current as in the picture.
Generator or dynamo
About 170 years ago, England scientist Michael Faraday
discovered a property of magnet that is still used in power
generation all over the world. You can also do the same
experiments that they did.

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ACTIVITY 10.6
What you need to do: To study electromagnetic induction.
Notes
What you need: Anti-insulated copper coil ,rod magnet,
galvanometer.
How to do it: Make a coil of about 25 wraps by wrapping
copper wire on a cylindrical object. Remove the cylindrical
object and scrape the insulated cover from both ends of the
copper wire. Connect the galvanometer at both ends of the two
ends as in the picture. It should be well ensured that one end of
the magnet can be carried from the inside and outside the coil.
Now quickly move one end of the magnet inside the coil and
watch the galvanometer needle carefully. Did the needle show
any special deflection, if so in which direction? Repeat your
experiment with the other end of the magnet and write your
observations in the table.
What You Seen: The galvanometer undergoes a deflection
while bringing the magnet back from the coil leading to the
coil. The arrival of a deflection indicates that an electric current
is induced in the coil at the time of the magnet's movement.
When the speed of the magnet is not there, no electric current
is also induced in the coil.
The same principle is used to generate electricity in generators.
The picture shows the internal state of the generator. It consists
of a rectangular coil moving rapidly between the poles of a
powerful magnet, producing an induced electric current in the

I
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coil, sending it from both ends of the coil into circuits for use by
devices. Electricity is produced on a large scale in large power
stations. The generators used in these power houses are of very
Notes
large size, whose horoscope is very large and heavy. Rotating
these coils in a magnetic field is a very complex task. Therefore,
in large generators, they keep the coil fixed and rotate the magnet.
Nowadays, all the new power plants are being built, only the
alternating current is produced. The voltage of this current at the
time of generation is 22000 volts or even more.
This current is sent to consumers by transmission lines. Often
the voltage of the electric current is increased to 1,32,000 volts
by the transformers before being sent by transmission lines. The
reason for increasing the voltage is that at higher voltages, the
loss of electrical energy in the power transmission is much less.
You must have seen electric sub-stations on the roads near your
house, where large transformers are installed. The power voltage
is gradually reduced at various sub-stations before distributing
power to consumers at 220 volts.
The alternating current of high voltages is very dangerous, so in
communication, thick wires are placed between high towers. A
red sign of danger is placed on each tower.
Household Electric Circuits
Watch the electrical wiring of your home carefully. How many
wires are used in it? Observe the wire of any electrical appliance,
such as electric iron, kettle, mixer, etc. Three-pin plugs are used
in these. The wires of the three codes usually consist of wires of

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three-colored envelopes. Live wire is often red, neutral wire is

black and Earth wire is green. The switch is always connected to
the live wire. The ground wire is attached to the metal plate lying
Notes
in the earth near the house. It is a means of protection and does
not affect the power supply in any way.
Electromagnet
We know that if a magnet inside the coil of a wire moves rapidly,
electric current flows in the coil. If we flow an electric current in
a coil and a magnet is hanging freely near the coil, what will be
the effect of the electric current on the magnet? Let's do an activity
to find out.

ACTIVITY 10.7 J
What you need to do: Study the magnetic effect of electric
current.
What you need: 8cm long iron nail, about 1 meter long enamel
plated copper wire, magnetic needle, two dry cells, small nails
or alpin.
How to do you: Wrap the wire tightly on the nail about 50
times. Scrape off the enamel on both open ends of the wire.
Now connect these ends with dry cells like in the picture and
bring the small spikes of coiled nails near the magnetic needle.
What you saw: Nail containing coil behaves like a magnet
when electric current flows. Does the streamline coil also affect
the magnetic needle?

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Conclusion: When current flows in the coil, the nail becomes

magnet. This magnet is called an electromagnet. Compare this
electromagnet with a rod magnet.
Notes
Dangers and precautions from electricity
We all know that electric energy is a very important and
convenient source of energy. However, it is extremely important
to take precautions in its use and follow safety measures. A little
carelessness can cause us 'electric shock' which can even lead to
death. Do you know what causes most trauma? Touching worn
metal wires, or metal parts of electrical equipment, causes
electrical shock.
There are some simple ways to avoid electric shock. We should
not touch any electrical device when we are barefoot or our body
is wet. Electrical wires and electrical equipment should not be
tampered with in the bathroom.
You are aware that fuses are used in electrical supply of homes.
We should not change these fuses. They are for our protection.
Fuse wires should not be thicker than required, otherwise the
fuse will not be able to protect if more current flows and the
wires remain vulnerable to fire.
Electrical appliances, which need to be touched while using, such
as electrical irons, refrigerator, etc., must always be 'grounded'
by placing 'ground wire'.
Whenever all the fuses are required to determine the cause of the
blow. By eliminating that reason, if the circuit appears appropriate,
then the circuit switch should be closed immediately.
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INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.1

1. Fill in the blanks:
Notes
(i) When connecting the terminals of a cell to a wire,
electrons go from ………. terminal to ……. terminal.
(ii) In a dry cell, a carbon rod acts as ……… electrode.
(iii) The device that produces electricity by electromagnetic
induction is called ........ or ..........
(iv) Electrical fuse acts as a circuit .........
(v) The wire connecting the frame of electrical equipment to
the ground is called ……….
(vi) The frequency of alternating current used in our homes is.......

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• There are two types of charge positive and negative.
• Homogeneous charges have repulsion and heterogeneous
charges have attraction.
• In a normal atom, the number of positively charged protons is
equal to the number of negatively charged electrons, so the
atom is electrically neutral.
• When an object loses its electron due to friction, it becomes
positively charged.
• The materials with which the charge flows are called
'conductors' and the materials from which charges do not flow
are called 'insulators'.

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• When clouds of two heterogeneous charges come close to each

other, electric immersion occurs, which is called lightning.
• The cloud roars after every rain.
Notes
• The magnet has two poles, the north pole and the south pole.
Homogeneous poles repel and heterogeneous poles attract each
other.
• The Earth behaves like a giant magnet, whose north pole is
near the geographical south pole and south pole is near the
geographical north pole.
• The freely hanging magnet always points in the north-south
direction.
• The flow of charge is called electric current. There are two
types of currents - direct current and alternating current.
• Dry cell and accumulator cell have direct current. In these
cells chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
• When a magnet moves near a closed coil, an electric current
flows in the coil due to electromagnetic induction.
• Electromagnetic induction is used in power generation by
generators.
• Electrical wires should never be left naked. Bare electrical
wires can cause electrical shock.
• Electrical devices that need to be touched while working must
be grounded.
• A device is used for protection in electrically conductive
circuits, known as 'safety fuse' or 'fuse'.

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TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What are anti-electric? Write the names of three anti-electrical
materials. Notes

2. Why do electricians wear rubber gloves in hand?

3. Rub the glass rod with silk cloth then the glass rod is positively
charged. Will there be any charge on the silk cloth? explain.
4. When we take off clothes made of nylon in the dark,the sound
sparks are seen with the sound of chatter. Why does this happen?
5. Match the information given in column 'A' with the word
given in column 'B' :
Column 'A' Column 'B'
1. Immersion of huge charges (a) non-conductive
2. charges flow (b) electrostatic
3. Unable to stream flowing substance (c) current
4. mutual repulsion of
homogeneous charges (d) lightened
6. Why the copper rod cannot be charged by holding directly in
the hand.
7. Why is magnetite called lodestone?
8. When an electric current flows through a wire, why is there a
deflection in a magnetic needle placed nearby?
9. What are electric cells? Explain the structure of a dry cell by diagram.
10. What is the importance of Earthing?
11. What precautions should be taken to avoid electric shock?
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ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

10.1
Notes
1. (i) positive, negative (ii) repulsion, attraction (iii) lightning.
(iv) Equal, opposite (v) Driver (vi)Insulator
2. (i)
10.2
1. (i) 1.5V (ii) 1.35V
2. Accumulator cell.
3. Connect its two ends with the bulb to both poles of a cell.
10.3
1. (i) North-South, (ii) Repel, Attract, (iii) Magnet, (iv)
compass, (v) South
2. It has a small magnet.
3. The magnet always uses the properties of north-south
direction to find direction.
To know the direction, use the property of the magnet
which always stays in the north-south direction.
10.4
1. (i) positive, negative, (ii) positive, (iii) generator, dynamo,
(iv) security, (v) ground wire, (vi) 50 Hertz

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Notes

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11 Notes

INFORMATION-COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY

Have you ever thought about how much time you spend reading,
writing, talking, listening to music or the radio and watching
television? These are activities that go on almost continuously.
If these things are not there then we will never know what is
happening around us? We tell our mind to others, listen to them.
For this, we exchange information and notify through talking,
writing, signs and gestures. In the last two decades, there has
been an unprecedented development of various means of
transmitting messages from one place to another through this
type of transfer and exchange of information or communication.
You can talk on the telephone with your friend or relative sitting
in any corner of the world right from home, watch a variety of
entertaining and educative, etc. programs on television.
In this lesson you will read about the need and means of
communication. Apart from this, we will also know briefly about
the journey of development of communication technology.

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<@>

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Notes
• communication and to know its need;
• To get to know the development journey of communication;
• Knowing the means of communication; And
• understanding its utility in the field of satellite communication
and information technology.
11.1 COMMUNICATION
You may have noticed that we keep exchanging our thoughts,
information and feelings with other people, this is called
communication. Hence communication is a process in which
various facts, figures, ideas, information and feelings are exchanged
with each other with the help of some common measures.
following four components are necessary for any communication:
1. The remitter or the source means the sender of the information,
2. The information that is to be spoken,
3. The communication medium through which the information
is to be sent,
4. The receiver, that is, the information receiver.
For example, whenever your teacher is teaching you, at that time,
the teacher is the observer, the things he is telling are information,
the things he is speaking is the medium and you are the receiver
I of information.
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Similarly, now you think that when you are talking to your friend
on the telephone, what are the essential elements of
communication in it.
Notes
The need and importance of communication
We spend a lot of our time every day reading, writing, talking,
listening to music or radio or watching television. These are all
forms of communication. If we stop doing all this then we will
be deprived of the events around us. It means to say that
communication is an essential activity of human beings, because
the need to carry information and ideas from one person to another
always remains. The ability to exchange ideas with each other is
an essential element for every living being. Without this, neither
human beings can work together nor develop and progress.
We communicate with our mother, father, brother and sister every
day through various means like signs and gestures. This type of
mutual communication increases cooperation with family
members and able to solve problems together.
We receive information through radio and television and also
watch entertainment programs. Newspapers also serve as
communication. Through them we get national and international
news, sports information stories and other printed material.
Teachers and students in the school constantly communicate
among themselves for the purpose of sharing information and
knowledge. In classrooms, students listen to their teacher, discuss,
write and read a book. In the field of business too, exchange of
information is very important from time to time. We see that

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communication takes place by telephone, magazines and

correspondence etc.
Now with the increasing development of science and technology,
Notes
the use of modern means of communication is increasing. Modern
communication tools such as fax machines, teleprinter, internet
and computer communication have made the system smaller. In
seconds radio spreads human sound throughout the world.
Communication satellites have made it possible to broadcast
television programs throughout the world. Do you know that in
our country, the great scientist Aryabhata first gave information
about the position of planets etc. We can watch live events in other
parts of the world such as election related information, Olympic
Games, Nobel Prize celebrations etc. sitting in our homes.
Types of human communication
When we talk to each other, we use a variety of means such as
smiling, raising eyebrows or doing a gesture or writing etc. Let
us know more about them.
1. Gesture: You must have felt this in your daily life that a lot
of our communication happens without words in front of you.
Sometimes we smile and sometimes we raise eyebrows. When
we welcome our guest, we raise our hands in a particular way,
but in the event of restraining someone or anger, we raise our
hands the other way. In this way, we get information about
each other's mouth postures and gestures.
2. Signs: Humans had learned to use signals to communicate
long distances from a very old time. With an axe markings

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were made on the trees to guid in the forest. You must have
noticed that the bells at the entrance of our houses indicate
the arrival of a visitor. Lighthouses made in the group, signal
Notes
the ships to indicate the direction of the site. In this way the
light of the traffic signs on the routes also indicate the vehicles
to stop, to get ready or to go.
3. Picture: Investigators have found colorful images of
prehistoric animals and predators on the walls of the caves.
These images show that humans are in a more advantageous
position than animals in the field of communication.
4. Symbol: You must have seen many types of signs and symbols
around you. For example, at the doctor's clinic, you must have
seen the sign of sum (+) and the symbol for prohibition of
smoking. All these have a special significance. We can make
symbols for other objects using letters and objects. Words are
the simplest of all the symbols used. Even in ancient times,
humans named the forest, day and night, food, water, and
animals. There are many types of signs and symbols at the
international level as well, which are used in mathematics
and science subjects.
5. Language: Everyone cannot easily understand the meaning
of the pictures and symbols mentioned above, as each symbol
has a special meaning. Therefore, to solve this problem, a
special type of language was designed and alphabets were
discovered. Writing and reading became easier after the
discovery of the alphabet. In this way communication became
easier due to the language and its help in reading and writing.
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The text you are reading at this time has also been written in a
language, English. With the help of this language, you can know
our thoughts. Similarly, many types of languages are used in the
Notes
world such as Hindi, Urdu etc. for communication.
Communication between animals
Have you ever thought that animals also understand each other's
feelings? For this, they express a variety of voices, gestures and
express facial expressions. Animals cannot talk like humans, but
they communicate with each other about things related to their
daily needs and experiences by voice and gesture.
Sound is important for animals and birds, they often use different
sounds to call their child and peers. Have you seen any monkeys
or chimpanzees? They also display many gestures that match us.
They display their anger in a way that matches us.
Sometimes they show a punch to demonstrate their anger and
sometimes bang their feet on the ground. They groom each
other, which increases love between them. In the same way,
dolphins produce a variety of sounds. Some of these sounds are
considered as a warning cry, so that some of the dolphins can
recognize each other. Smell is an important means of animal
communication. When dogs meet each other, they smell each
other, by this they recognize their companion. The ants emit a
strong odor, called pheromones. This smell helps the ants to reach
their target and they follow each other in a row with the help of
the smell.

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Mass Communication
So far you have read that we use many types of means to
communicate with each other. You may have read the newspaper,
Notes
heard the news on television, or may have taken a lot of
information with the help of other newspapers-magazines. In all
these, information and news can be reached to many people
present at different places simultaneously and at the same time.
This is called broad communication i.e. mass communication. In
this, information is exchanged using machines. Machines made,
magazines, newspapers, radio, television etc. are the medium of
mass communication.
Not only do we get information about the country and abroad
through mass media, but they also help in transmitting any kind
of special information to every person present at any place in a
moment. Nowadays, mass media is also being used for the
promotion of education and awareness programs related to
common problems in the general public.
As you know that, on television, cricket matches or Olympic
Games broadcasts, election broadcasts etc. can reach crores of
people simultaneously. In this way we see that communication
is becoming a part of our daily life day by day.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.1

1. Why was communication needed?
2. What are the essential components of communication?
3. What is the difference between animals and humans
communication system?
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11.2 DEVELOPMENT JOURNEY OF

COMMUNICATION
Nowadays we are living in the modern communication era, but
Notes
the story of the communication system is as old as human
civilization. In the old times, people used to communicate with
each other with the help of different types of signs, symbols and
pictures etc. Pigeons were used for long distance
telecommunication. But with the development of the alphabet,
people learned to read - write and letters etc. were used for the
exchange of information. Facts and information began to be
presented in the form of books. You should know that the people
of China first made a block printed book. Initially, the printing
of books was done with the help of letter press. In this process,
the ink was properly applied to the embossed blocks of letters
and pictures etc. and pressed on a sheet of paper. By doing this,
the desired thing was printed on paper.
This was followed by the next invention of photo-typesetting, in
which the photography method was used for typesetting.
Nowadays computer typesetting is used extensively for
composing and various presses are used in printing of most of
the books you read. With the invention of the printing press, not
only books but also newspapers and magazines started being
published for communication. Let us move forward in the
development journey of communication and know about the
development of other communication tools.
Telegraph
Although the communication system is very ancient, but the

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introduction of telecommunication was possible only after the

invention of electrical telegraphy. Through this device, messages
can be sent from far to far places via electrical wires or through
Notes
radio waves in seconds. Samuel Morse and his colleagues
developed a simple telegraph in 1838 and sent messages in the
form of Dots And dashes called Morse codes. This was the first
time that the information was electrically driven. In Morse code,
each word, numbers and other signs of the alphabet are displayed
by groups of dots (short sign) and dash (long sign). By 1860, big
cities of the world were connected by telegraph lines. Thus the
telegraph became a major tool for communication over long
distances. Morse sent the first message on 24 May 1844 in Morse
code via telegraph line from Baltimore to Washington (America).
Telegraph messages are sent from one place to another by pressing
the telegraph key. A dot is created by pressing the key and leaving
it soon. It generates small electrical signals that reach the receiver
telegraphic station via electrical wires. In the case of a radio
telegraph, when the key is pressed, radio waves develop through
the antenna of the telegraph transmitter. Coded messages are sent
by radio waves, which are received by a telegraph subscriber
with the frequency of the telegraph being sent.
Each telegraph station has a transmitter and receiver so that it
can transmit the message and receive the message sent by another
telegraph. Nowadays telegraph messages are sent through
teleprinter and automatic fax.
Telephone
Telephone is an important medium of communication nowadays.

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You can interact with stakeholders in a moment. You can talk to

your relatives, friends and business people. Alexander Graham
Bell invented the first telephone in 1876, which made it possible
Notes
to transmit human voice by wire.
Working methods of a telephone
The handset of a telephone device has two parts - for mouth a
mouthpiece and for ears a earpiece. The mouthpiece acts like a
transmitter and has a microphone. When you speak in front
of the mouthpiece, its microphone produces a variable electric
current and converts your sound energy into electrical signals.
These electrical signals are mixed with the carrier wave (high
frequency radio wave) and then sent through the wire to the
receiver at the other end. At the receiving end, the variable
electrical signals are separated from the carrier waves and the
earpiece re-convert the electrical signals into sound waves. The
sound generated by the earpiece is similar to the way you speak
in the mouthpiece.
Similarly, when a person at the receiving end speaks in the
mouthpiece, you hear his voice in your ear. Thus, telephone
equipment consists of both a transmitter and a receiver.
As soon as you pick up the handset of your telephone to contact
another telephone number, a switch turns off, which makes your
telephone contact the telephone exchange.
When we press the button to dial the telephone number, many
electrical pulses are generated, these are captured in the electronic

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circuit of the electrical exchange. This electronic circuit operates

a series of switches that connect your telephone to the telephone
of the person with whom you wish to communicate.
Notes
Telephone exchanges and your telephones in cities are connected
to the cable and these cables usually stay underground. These
cables are often made of copper or aluminum. Cables are inserted
under the sea to connect various continents via telephone. Now
the process of placing telephone lines inside the ground is coming
to an end due to the invention of artificial satellites, which revolve
around the earth.
Teleprinter
The invention of the teleprinter is an important tool in the history
of telecommunication. Teleprinter is also known as a
"teletypewriter". It is used to send and receive messages and other
information in writing. The Teleprinter's keyboard has letter
numbers, symbols, all signs of communication and other letters.
The teleprinter operator presses the appropriate key to send the
message. This generates electrical pulses which are sent to one
or more teleprinters to remote locations via wire or radio waves.
Messages sent by teleprinter are automatically printed on the
paper by remote teleprinter. In this way, notifications can be sent
easily from one place to another.
Teletext
With the development of modern communication tools, Teletext
developed. The sending of data implanted on Doordarshan's
signals is called teletext. Doordarshan viewers see data on the

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television screen. Information sent from Doordarshan center is

collected in the computer system. These information are placed in
pages in a sequential manner. These are sent in a circular manner
Notes
via TV signals so that every page that is assembled on the
computer can be automatically broadcast again after every 15-20
seconds. Decoder is required by the viewers. It remembers the
words of the pages and also includes the method by which the
signals received are converted into text or graphic form. Viewers
can select the page they like with the help of a key head on the
decoder related numbers. Initially, Doordarshan used teletext and
featured news headlines. But nowadays it tells the time of arrival
and departure of trains and ships, reservation status of trains,
sports information, weather etc. Teletext has proved to be very
useful in news operations to capture the world's smallest events.
Radio
Radio is an extremely important instrument in the field of
communication. It is a powerful means of wireless
communication. In 1887, Henry Hertz detected radio waves. He
found that radio waves are a type of electromagnetic waves, which
can move in air or vacuum. They spread from the source in the
same way that a wave propagates through the water by throwing
a stone in a pond . He discovered that radio waves behave like
light. When Marconi came to know that radio waves move at the
speed of light and can be reflected, he thought of using waves to
send information. By that time, information was sent by electric
wires from Morse code. By 1895, Marconi had developed an

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instrument that could transmit radio waves up to a mile away. By

1897, they crossed the English canal and sent radio signals for
31 miles and by 12 December 1901 the S letter was sent across
Notes
the Atlantic Sea in Morse code. It has brought the field of
communication to create a sensation all around and the era of
wireless communication began. Nowadays there have been many
ways of communicating wireless messages - such as radio,
television (Doordarshan), telephone, telegraph, teletext,
teleprinter etc. We are studying some of them here.
Television
Television ie Doordarshan has revolutionized the field of
communication. With the help of Doordarshan, we not only get
information about news and important events but also watch
entertainment and education related programs. The Doordarshan
station accepts Doordarshan signals sent from the Antenna
Doordarshan Center as a signal to send mixed video signals and
modulate the sound signals. Mixed video and sound signals come

Fig. 11.1 Television

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in the form of photos from the circuit of common signals. The

sound signals are separated and sent to the sound circuit, where
they come in the form of sound and go into the loudspeaker and
Notes
thus produce sound. The video signal comes as a photo from the
video circuit and is sent to the picture tube, this video signal
changes the intensity of the electrons moving around the tube.
Due to this, the brightness varies. This is the reason for the change
of luminosity in the picture tube, which produces a picture on
the television screen.
Accepting the Doordarshan signal sent by Doordarshan to a place
depends on the height of the antenna of the transmitter. If we
want to send the Doordarshan signal at a greater distance, then
we have to increase the height of the antenna of the transmitter.
The Bombay Doordarshan Antenna Tower is 300 meters in height.
Suppose we want to send a signal to Doordarshan through a single
transmitter station, Then the height of the antenna has to be kept
more than about 210 kilometers. But it is not possible to make an
antenna of that height. Now the question arises that how are the
National Doordarshan broadcasts taken all over India? National
Doordarshan broadcasting is seen in most parts of India with the
help of Earth's satellite system. National T.V. program signals
are first sent to the satellite. These T.V. signals are captured by
antenna by satellite, and are sent back to different parts of the
country. More information about the satellite communication
system is given in the next section.
Computer
After the invention of the computer, the communication system

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Notes

Fig. 11.2 The main components of the computer

has become such that you can not only exchange information,
but can also collect information and data and also send your
feedback. Apart from communication, computers are also being
used in the fields of industry, medicine, science, education, traffic
and entertainment.
A computer is not just a calculator making arithmetic calculations,
it is an electronic machine that sorts, mimics, compares and also
performs those arithmetic functions in different alphabets,
numbers and signs from which data with some information is
revealed. In simple words, the computer accepts the data, prepares
its block by photo and returns the result of the block. Since the
computer gives data by making blocks by photo, it is also known
as a data making machine.
There are mainly three components in any computer.
1. Input
2. Central Processing Unit.
3. Output

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Special tools mainly convert data and information into readable

form in computer machines. A computer can have a variety of
input devices such as keyboards, floppy disks and scanners etc.
Notes
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the core of any computer.
It can also be called the brain of a computer, where data and
information are collected and processed. This unit mainly consists
of the following tasks:
• Gathering of data, information and instructions,
• Controlling the various actions according to the collected
instructions,
• Control of the actions of all the units of the computer, their
proper coordination with management,
• Changing the processed result as necessary.
The output is the third important part of the computer. In this, the
result of computer processed data etc. is obtained in a special
form which a person using a computer can understand. It includes
magnetic tape, floppy disks and printers.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.2

1. How does the telegraph work?
2. What is the function of a microphone?
3. What is the difference between Teleprinter and Teletext?
4. Who detected radio waves?
5. What needs to be done to transmit the signal over a television?.

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11.3 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Technology in the field of telecommunications today is advancing
at such a high speed that messages and information are being Notes
transmitted simultaneously through space through satellites all
over the world. Whether it is television or internet or telephone,
the role of satellites is very important in all areas.
You already know about the Earth's satellite moon. It is a natural
satellite that orbits around the Earth in a fixed orbit, but has no
utility in the field of communication. Man-made satellites have
an important role in making telecommunications easier. These
satellites are placed in an orbit in space at 35900 km above the
Earth. The speed of these satellites is equal to the Earth's rotation
speed. Because of which these satellites seem stable to the
observers sitting on Earth. Therefore, these man-made satellites
are called Geostationary satellites and the orbit from which the
satellites are placed is called Geostationary orbit.
In 1965, the first geostationary communication satellite was
placed in an orbit over the Atlantic Ocean. Within four years,
many satellites were installed, some of which were placed over
the Pacific Ocean and some over the Indian Ocean. Subsequently,
communication by satellites between countries of the world
became possible. Today many modern satellites are placed in
orbits around the earth, each of which maintains a communication
link with stations built on continents.
Artificial satellites have significant use mainly in the field of
information technology and communication. Apart from this,
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weather forecasts can be made with their help. Different types of
probe satellites can detect such events that are otherwise
impossible. Everything from mobile phones to television, internet
Notes
etc. depends on the satellite communication system.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.3
1. What is meant by a geostationary classroom?
2. How high above the earth are man-made satellites?
3. Why does the Earth's natural satellite moon have no utility in
the field of communication?
•

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• We need communication to exchange messages and
information with each other.
• Communication basically requires source, message, medium
and receiver.
• Animals and birds also communicate with their voices and
gestures.
• Human communication requires gestures, signs, images and
symbols, language and mass communication.
• Revolutionary progress has been made in the field of
information communication with the development of modern
communication systems from ancient communication
systems.
• Wireless communication is being used by radio waves in
I modern communication systems.
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• Television, teletext, telegraph and computer are Modern

communication equipment.
• The computer mainly consists of three essential components
Notes
- input, central processing unit and output.
• In satellite communications, man-made satellites are placed
in the Earth's geostationary orbit.
• Man-made satellites are helping to establish faster
communication and weather forecasting.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What is communication and why was it needed?
2. What is the contribution of the computer to the
communication system?
3. What is a computer? Write two uses of it.
4. What is the usefulness of man-made satellites in the field of
communication?
5. Describe any two means of communication.
6. How do animals and birds communicate with each other?
7. Highlight the importance of gestures for human
communication.
8. Explain the usefulness of mass communication in the modern
era.
9. What is Mass Communication? Write down its main means.
10. Explain the similarities and differences in radio and television
communication systems.
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ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

11.1
Notes
1. To exchange information and ideas with each other.
2. Sender, information, communication medium and
receiver.
3. Humans can communicate in many ways, such as gestures,
signs, images, symbols, language, etc.
11.2
1. Data on Doordarshan signals are implanted and sent to
Doordarshan screen.
2. Converting sound energy into electrical signals.
3. Data etc. can be read or seen on the screen of Doordarshan
in Teletext but teleprinter can be sent and received.
4. Henry Hertz
5. Mixed sound and video signals are sent as module signals.
11.3
1. The orbit is located at an altitude of about 35900 km above
the Earth, in which the speed of the satellites is equal to
the rotation speed of the Earth.
2. 35900 km
3. Since the Moon circles around the Earth in a certain orbit.

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Notes

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Advancement In Food Production
CLASS-VIII

12 Notes

ADVANCEMENT IN
FOOD PRODUCTION

It was summer vacation in schools, Ashok was going to his

grandfather's village with his mother. Seeing the crowds in the
station and the train, he all of a sudden got the idea that how
much food should be needed by this crowd and he asked the
same question to his mother. Mother said that you see this kind
of crowd at the office, hospital or other public places also. And
this is a glimpse of our growing population, in front of which
food supply is a fundamental problem.
Food is one of the requirements of human beings, because we
can live without less clothes and home, but cannot live without
food. Roti is the first of the three basic requirements of man-
food, cloth and house. Let us consider the solution of the food
problem in this lesson. For this, we will read more and more
food production methods and new techniques.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
• Understand new technologies of food production;
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• To know the irrigation and the means of irrigation;

• To differentiate between Green Revolution and White
Revolution;
Notes
• knowing the use of compost and fertilizers;
• Understand the storage of food;
• And getting to know soil management.

12.1 FOOD PRODUCTION

Due to the increasing population, we can solve the problem of
food supply in two ways.
1. The land used for farming should be increased. But you will
know that the size of land is limited.
2. By adopting scientific and new technology, food grains
production can be increased per unit area. That is, through
intensive farming, more yield can be obtained.
All of us living beings depend on plants for food, because we
cannot prepare our own food. Whereas, plants make their food
with the help of water and soil in the presence of sunlight. Our
population is increasing at a much faster rate than plants.
Therefore, there is a need to adopt new technologies in agriculture
for food supply.
In the 1960s, there was a lot of loss of life and property due to
famine and starvation in our country. To get rid of this, we
improved agricultural practices and used new breeds of crops.
This increased our crop production and we were able to meet
our requirements.

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New technology for food production

As man became more knowledgeable about farming, the methods
of farming continued to improve. According to the results
Notes
obtained as a result of research on various agricultural practices
of farming, those techniques started to be adopted. Let's see what
these techniques are?
1. Preparation of soil: Preparation of soil means that the field
should be plowed according to the crop, which makes the
soil friable. In friable soil, as the growth of roots is sufficient
then the need of water also increases. Roots can take water
and air easily. After plowing, they level the field.
2. Sowing: After the selection of good and healthy seed, they
sow it in the field prepared. Seed treatment is done before
sowing, so that there is no loss of crops.
3. Irrigation: The crop should be irrigated at the given time.
Appropriate amount of water should be applied for irrigation.
If there is too much water, then the drainage of water should
also be managed.
4. Weeding-hoeing: When the crop starts to grow, then along
with the crop, unwanted plants also grow together which are
called weeds. These weeds should be removed with the help
of workers or by using chemicals, or else they harm crops.
Crops are also damaged by insect flies and diseases, we
control them by using chemicals.
5. Manure-Fertilizer: Plants take their nutrients from the soil.
Sometimes Nutrients taken by the plant such as nitrogen,

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phosphorus and potash content is low in soil. Therefore, we

supply them by adding manure or fertilizer to the field. Manure
is rotten dung, etc. and fertilizers are chemical substances.
Notes
6. Harvesting: At a certain time the crop is ripe and ready. This
is called sickle or tractor driven machine, which harvests the
crops standing in the fields and also helps mowing the field.
With the help of combine, they harvest and bring them to the
barn. After that, we thresh and clean and store it.
Based on the above techniques, a number of experiments were
conducted through which successful harvesting can be done,
some of them are described below.
What is the Green Revolution
In the 1960s, the slogan of the Green Revolution came. The
country was struggling with severe food shortage. Special
attention was paid to farming, so that fast and high quantities
with quality of food grains can be produced.
New species of crops developed as a result of agricultural
research. The use of which increased the yield and solved our
food supply problem. These advanced species have many
qualities such as:
1. They are ready soon.
2. Their production capacity increases with the use of manures
and fertilizers.
3. Many species are also anti-disease.
4. Production price per unit is low.
5. Gives higher yield.
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Our granary is filled with the use of these advanced species. Today
we also export food to other countries. All of this has been possible
only through the use of innovative species and new methods of
Notes
agriculture. This entire process is known as the Green Revolution.
Do you know who gets the credit for bringing the green revolution
in our country? To M/s. Swaminathan. M/s. Swaminathan worked
to revolutionize agriculture and developed many new high
yielding improved varieties.
Ashok reached his grandfather's village. Everyone met with great
love. After his first day, Ashok had a great desire to go to the
fields and see farming with his eyes. He asked so many things
from his Grandfather. Grandfather gave a lot of information, some
of which are as follows:
1. Climate (i) Temperature
(ii) Rain
(iii) Moisture
2. Soil (i) Varieties of soil
(ii) Nutrient content in soil
3. Management (i) Availability of manure and fertilizer
(ii) Use of weeds and pesticides
(iii) Availability of skilled workers
4. Others (i) Market (place of sale)
(ii) Storage
(iii) Vehicle tools

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Then Grandfather told further, in addition to all these, good food

production depends on the intellectual capacity of the farmer
and the tools used, i.e. mechanical agriculture. Ashok asked what
Notes
is this mechanical agriculture?
Mechanical Agriculture
Farming was initially taken into consideration as far as the
development of pasture was concerned, because fodder for
animals was the main objective of those people at that time. But
as man got the knowledge of farming he started using new tools
in farming.
Sl. Agricultural Various agricultural equipments used
no. activities in farming
In old-time In modern times
1. Plowing Domestic plough tractors, modern
(wood) plough made of iron
2. Sowing Behind plough or seed drill
by spill method
3. Manure Sprinkler Method Machine driven
equipment or foliar
spraying
4. Irrigation Wells, pond Pumps and drip irrigation
5. Weeds Plucking by hand Pesticides and by
biological control
6. Plant safety Use of various Spraying of insecticides
chemicals from with machine-operated
handheld devices equipment
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7. Weeding-hoeingTrowel and Shovel By hand or equipment with

cultivator (Bullock which weeding -
or tractor driven hoeing is done)
Notes
8. Harvesting such as sickle Machine driven which
equipment from harvesting and mowing is
done
9. Threshing with the help of Machine driven equipment
hand or bullock or threshing machine which
separates grain from crops
10. Storage In containers made In containers made
of jute bags or clay of steel or cement
Ashok went to the farm the next morning, saw the workers
irrigating the fields. Ashok asked Grandfather what are the best
means of irrigation?
Irrigation
Plants use water for the preparation of their food. Providing water
to plants (crops) by various means is called irrigation. A lot of
nutritional elements reach different parts of the plant through
water.
Irrigation should be done at the appropriate time and in
appropriate quantity. If there is no water at the right time, the
crop production is affected. Over-watering can also result in crop
damage. The following things should be kept in mind while
irrigating the plants:

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• Irrigation should be done at the right time.

• Appropriate irrigation should be done.

Notes • There should be proper management of drainage.

• Water should be saved from going waste.

• Water storage should be arranged during the rainy season.

• Fertilization of fields should be done before irrigation.

Means of irrigation:

The following means are commonly used for irrigation:

(i) canal (ii) well (iii) pond (iv) pump (v) tubewell (vi) drip
irrigation

ACTIVITY 12.1
What you need to do: Separating healthy seeds from mixed
seeds.

How to do it: If there are unhealthy seeds in the paddy seeds,

then put them in a big vessel or a tub to separate them. Add
clean water to the tub and mix all the seed with the help of
some wood. After one hour you will see that the unhealthy
seeds are found on the upper surface of water while healthy
seeds are on the surface of the vessel. In this way, healthy
seeds are used by separating unhealthy seeds from them.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.1

1. Match Section 'A' with Section 'B' : Notes

Section 'A' Section 'B'

(i) Food grains (a) Improved seeds

(ii) Green revolution (b) Canal

(iii) Mechanical farming (C) Combine

(iv) Irrigation (d) Pulses

(v) Harvesting (e) Tractors

While returning from the farm, Ashok had a dilemma in his mind,
what are manures and fertilizers. Before sleeping at night, he
asked Grandfather, what is the difference between manure and
fertilizer?

12.2 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

The main purpose of providing manure and fertilizer to plants is
to provide nutrients. Therefore, the element lacking in plants can
be met through fertilizers. This enhances plant growth and
provides more benefits.

The difference between fertilizer and fertilizer is as follows -

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Manure Fertilizer
1. Manure is a natural substance, 1. Man-made materials, which
with the use of which increase nutrient use in fields.
Notes
increases the amount of fossil For example, urea.
in the farm and increases
fertility. For example dung
manure, compost, etc.

2. It contains less amount of 2. It contains a high amount of

nutrients. nutrients comparatively.

3. Provides nutrients gradually 3. Nutrients are available to the

to plants. plants quickly.

4. Manure is always used before 4. Fertilizers can be used in

sowing seeds in the field. different stages of crop growth.

5. Manure do not leave any 5. If fertilizers are not used in a

harmful effects in plants or proper way, they can have
soil. adverse effects on the soil.

6. Its production is simple. 6. It requires a special kind of

efficiency in its production.
Often they are produced in the
factory.

7. They are less expensive. 7. They are expensive.

Ashok continued the discussion and asked how fertilizers can be

used judiciously?

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Use of Fertilizers judiciously

1. The amount of nutrients in the soil can be reduced, which we
can supply by adding manure or fertilizer in the fields. Notes

2. Soil should be examined before use of fertilizer.

3. Fertilizer should be used only as per the requirement of crops.
4. Determine the amount of fertilizer needed based on the
moisture available in the soil.
5. Fertilizer should be used in areas with high rainfall.
6. Nutrients of crops are obtained by providing fertilizer in the
form of slurry
7. Use of fertilizer also depends on the method of cultivation.
8. Before use of fertilizer, the field should be bunded or else the
nutrients get released.

Generally the following fertilizers are available in the market:

1. Urea
2. Super Phosphate (Single)
3. Super Phosphate (Double)
4. Muriate of Potash
5. Dye-Ammonium Phosphate
6. Nitrophosphate (Sufla)
7. IFFCO N.P.K. (Grade-1)

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While Ashok was discussing manure and fertilizer with his
grandfather suddenly a grasshopper came and sat on Ashok's
shoulder. Ashok panics but Grandfather removes the grasshopper
Notes
and says that these moths damage the crops. Ashok asked, How
do we prevent pests that harm crops?
4-t-
~§
~

ACTIVITY 12.2
Find out the various fertilizers available in the market and prepare
a list.
Pests and Pesticides
The major pests in crops and their prevention are as follows:
1. Termites: It is very harmful and keeps tunneling in the
ground. It keeps on eating the roots of the plants. For its
prevention Aldrin should be used.
2. Grasshopper: It damages the plant by eating the leaf. To
prevent this, BHC (Tbh) should be used.
3. Paddy gandhi bug: They suck the juice from the leaves of
paddy, because of which paddy does not form any grain. To
prevent this, Chhatra should be used.
4. Sundi: Sundi is approximately 4 cm long. It eats leaves, which
reduces production. For its prevention Endosulfan should be
used.
5. Insect: It damages food grains at the time of pest storage.
Sulfas are used to control this.
I
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Then Ashok asked again, what is the difference between

insecticide and herbicide?
Grandfather said that weeds are unwanted plants that grow in a Notes
place without sowing. Especially weeds, insect moths and animal
birds cause damage in crop production. Weeds are controlled by
using various chemicals. These chemicals are called herbicides.
Herbicides sometimes destroy the weeds completely, such as (2,
4) herbicides.
The chemicals used to control insect moths are called insecticides,
like BHC. e.t.c.
Ashok asked how do we store food?
Food grains storage
Grandfather said with a smile that the crops that survive the effects
of harmful pests, those crops are harvested when they are ripe or
ready. Harvesting of the crop should be done at the right time,
otherwise there is loss of food grains as the grains begin to fall.
Harvesting is usually done with sickle but in modern agriculture
many places have started harvesting with Combine harvester.
Through which harvesting work is completed quickly.
After harvesting the crops are threshed. For threshing, they take
the help of cattle, tractors or oxen. By threshing, the grains are
separated from the crops. If the moisture content in the grains
remains around 10 percent, then you can store them in jute bags.
If there is moisture in the grains, then by drying it brings moisture
level up to 10 percent. Storage is done in ceramics or steel vessels.

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These vessels are cleaned thoroughly before storage. When

needed, through chemicals, these parts are processed with
chemicals. Aluminum phosphate should be used to protect stored
Notes
food grains from mice etc.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.2

Fill in the blanks
1. Compost is a type of ..........
2. Urea is a type of ..........
3. The Sundi can be controlled using ..........
4. Insect comes at the time of ..........
5. The moisture in the grain should be .......... percent before
storage.
6. In modern times crops are harvested from ..........

12.3 SOIL MANAGEMENT

The process which can preserve or increase the fertility of soil is
called soil management. Soil fertility depends on the following
factors:
• manure and fertilizer
• fallow
• crop cycle,
• intensive farming or multi-crop farming

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1. Manure and Fertilizer: Earlier also we had talked about

manure and fertilizer. Adding manure and fertilizer to the soil
supplies the nutrients extracted by the crops, thereby
Notes
maintaining the fertility of the soil. Use of manure increases
the amount of bacteria in the soil. Bacterial soil provides
nutrients to.
2. Fallow: Leave the field empty for some time before taking
the main crop or after harvesting the crop. This process is
called fallow farming. This can prevent frequent exploitation
of nutrients from the soil. Insect moths and their eggs in the
field are also destroyed. But this type of farming is not
practiced in modern times.
3. Crop cycle: Sowing of crops on any part of the soil in such a
way that the fertility of the soil is maintained is called the
crop cycle. In this, crops are selected in such a way that the
fertility of soil is constant. For this, it is important to select a
crop that needs less manure after a pulse crop or a crop that
requires more manure, such as maize-pea-soybean.
4. Intensive farming: Intensive farming is adopted to solve the
growing population and food problem, in which maximum
production is achieved by planting two to three or four crops in a
year in a single field. It is also known as multi-crop farming.
The following things are required for multi-crop farming:
1. Irrigation facilities
2. Skilled workers
3. Availability of manure, fertilizers, pesticides
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4. Market access
5. Availability Of new species
Notes Thriving species
The improved species of various crops are as follows:
Sl.No. Crop Thriving species
1. Wheat Sonalika, welfare, gold, glory
2. Mustard Sangam, (), Runa
3. Grain Prabhat, I.R.-8, Ratna, Mahsuri
4. Corn Ranjit, Padma, hybrid maize, Ganga -2
5. Potatoes Kufri alankar, Kufri Chandramukhi
6. Okra Pusa sawani, Pusa makhmali
7. Onion Pusa Red, ratnar
8. Radish White icicle, pusa himani
9. Papaya Washington, singapore, shillong
10. Guava Allahabadi Safeda, Lucknow-49
11. Mango Alphonso, dasheri, langra
12. Apple Golden delicious, blood red
White Revolution
Ashok asked what is the White Revolution? The GrandFather
said that the White Revolution is related to milk production. You
must have known that milk is a balanced ideal diet. Our country

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has the largest number of cattle but their productivity is low, so

the per capita milk availability is less than other countries.
As a result of scientific research and as a result of various Notes
development programs, the breeds of cattle were improved in
the 1960s. The native cattle were crossbred with cattle of foreign
breeds which increased their production capacity. Nowadays the
availability of milk per person is 158 grams. However, this is not
satisfactory, as this quantity should be 280 grams.
The Government of India, with the help of the World Bank, has
opened cooperative institutions in rural areas with the aim of
collecting milk from rural areas and selling it without processing
it by providing fair prices to the milk producers. Milk production
has increased as a result of breed improvement and organizational
action and we are third in the world in terms of total production.
Some of the more advanced species of milch animals are as
follows:
Cow - Kankrej, Tharparkar, Hariana, Sahiwal, Rathi, Lal Sindhi,
Jersey etc.
Buffalo - Murrah, Surti, Bhadawari.
Goat - Jamnapari, Pashmina, Angora.
Some of these breeds you can visit and observe in your cowshed.
Poultry Farming
The term poultry refers to the class of birds. Fowl, ducks, etc.
birds fall in this category. They are used to meet human needs in
various ways. Poultry farming accounts for 90% of this class of

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birds. We get eggs, meat and other useful things from poultry
farming. Initially, poultry farming was confined to the backyard
or enclosures of the house. But due to improvement in breeds of
Notes
poultry and changes in its maintenance, today it has taken the
form of an industry. It has become a major source of income.
Nevertheless, in our view, the availability of eggs and meat per
capita is less as compared to other countries. Nowadays 25 eggs
and 400 grams of meat are available per person in our country.
Major species of hen: Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock, Leghan
etc. These advanced species start laying eggs at the age of 20
weeks and continue to lay eggs for life. An hen lays an average
of 280 to 300 eggs in 1 year.
Major diseases of chickens: Chickens are very weak and
susceptible to diseases. Due to this, the poultry industry is
affected. Therefore, special attention should be paid to the
cleanliness of the aviaries or their habitat and the chickens should
be vaccinated. The disease named Ranikhet is more common in
chickens, which can be controlled by vaccination.

ACTIVITY 12.3 J
What you need to do: Identify healthy eggs and spoiled eggs.
• Heat the water to lukewarm.
• Put eggs in water.
What you saw: You will see that the eggs that float above are
bad and those who rests on the bottom are healthy eggs.

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Advancement in Food Production
CLASS-VIII

In this way the holidays ended, when Ashok came back to the
city and met his friends, everyone told about their experience.

Notes
WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT
• We have been able to get rid of the problem of food supply by
using modern and mechanized equipment in agriculture.
• In modern agriculture, people use advanced species.
• The use of manure and fertilizers increases productivity.
• Yield of crops has increased by adopting new methods of irrigation.
• Biological and chemical methods are adopted to control pests,
mites and diseases.
• Harvesting and threshing of crops is done with modern
equipment.
• Improvement in the breeds of cow, chicken etc. has increased
their productivity.
• The availability of eggs, milk and meat per person is now
more than before.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions:
1. What is meant by the Green Revolution?
2. What is the difference between manure and fertilizer?
3. Make a list of various tools used in agriculture.
4. Write the names of the progressing species of wheat, paddy,
apple and mango.
OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 283
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 Advancement in Food Production
CLASS-VIII

5. Write the scientific method of food production.

6. What is meant by the White revolution?
Notes
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
12.1
(1) D (2) A (3) D (4) B (5) C
12.2
1. Manure
2. Fertilizer
3. Endosulfan
4. Storage
5. 10 percent
6. Combine

284 Vijnana, Level-C

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Advancement In Food Production
CLASS-VIII

Notes

OBE-Bharatiya Jnana Parampara 285