HUMAN REPRODUCTION (Reproductive System) AMAVSIO Revision Notes Growth. Itis a biological phenomenon involving increase in the quantity of metabolically sctive protoplasm, accompanied by an increase in cell number or cell size or both. Reproduction. The process of producing the young-ones of one's own type is called reproduction. Development. Itis developement of a small, simple one celled zygote intoalarge complex. many celled adult plant or animal Embryonic or Pre-natal period. It is the period of development of an animal from fertilization to the hatching or birth stage. Post-embryonic or Post-natal period. It is the period of changes or transformations which occur in an animal from hatching or birth upto death, Ontogeny. The sum total of events and progressive changes which transform a fertilized egg to a mature individual capable of reproducing is known as ontogeny. Reproductive unit. It is is unit produced from either one parent or two parents which undergo a series of developmental changes to give rise to the body of offspring which resembles the parent. Gamete. It is the structure produced by male or female individual through meiosis (gametogenesis) in the sex organs, which takes part in the fertilization to form zygote. Zygote. It is the sexual fusion product of male and female gametes. Embryo. It is the stage of life history between fertilization and hatching or birth of young one. Its derived from the fertilized egg or zygote. Embryo is diploid. Its formed as. ‘result of fertilization and subsequent changes. Embryology, Itis the study of events and changes that take place from fertilization to hatching or birth of an individual and includes the changes of prenatal period only. Developmental Biology. It is the study of ontogenic development process by which ‘organism undergoes changes in their structure and physiology during their entire life and includes the entire changes from fertilization till death. Reproduction. The process of producing the young ones of its own type is called reproduction. @ FORMS OF REPRODUCTION ‘The Asexual and Sexual reproduction are the two main forms of reproduction in animals. Asexual Reproduction. It is a type of multiplication in which an offspring is formed from a specialized or unspecialized part of the parent without the formation and fusion of sex cells and the process is termed blastogenesis. Basic features of asexual reproduction (1) Only one parent is involved. 2) All the cell divisions are mitotic. ) All the offsprings are genetically similar to the parent. saad), TH feproductive unit sa fragment or specialized pat ofthe parent. I is termed astos. The different ways of asexual reproducion are : Budding, fission, fragmentation, plastotomy etc. Budding may be extemal (e.g Porifers ‘and Hydra) or internal (e.g. Spongilla). Fission may be binary (e.g. Euglena) or multiple (Plasmodium) Fragmentation (e.g. Earthworm), Sporulation (e.g Amoeba) Another asexual method is either androgenesis or gynogenesis. HUMAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) 7.39‘Types of sesual reproduction Parthenogenesis ‘Sexual Reproduction ‘po biparental reprodoction tno males, females develop by parthenogenesis eg. Caveasian rock lizard (Lacerta sericolaarmamea) temporary pairing of parents which texchange nuclear material ¢¢ sexual and parthenogent individuals altemate Honey ee. Toa SBT T [ad ey cnn pees srfsing eat i amy Toate Neotny Peipembryony ee 1 es att, sal mpetcton, Ze pnt Nan Beer ae Belen Sree eee Smee erica cape ental 8. tpuecal te ‘Monocystis form ete. ‘eg: axolotl larva vend Pro ee ETE top mbt man ta fon bamsn (2 BASIC FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Gametogenesis. The production and differentiation of male and female haploid ‘gametes from gonads. 2. Fertilization. The union or syngamy of haploid nuclei of male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote is called fertilization. 3. Cleavage and Blastula. Series of repeated mitotic division of an egg to form a cluster of ball of cells (blastomeres) called blastula. 4 Gastrulation. The morphogenetic movements of cells of blastula to give rise to germinal layers, ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm is called gastrulation. The embryo thus formed with archenteron is called gastrula. 5. Organogenesis. The formation of organs and organ-systems from germinal layers is called organogenesis. 6. Growth. Growth is permanent increase by the synthesis of new nuclear material and ‘cytoplasm. 17. Differentiation. It refers to events by which parts become different from one another. Sexual Reproduction. It is a type of reproduction which takes place by the formation and fusion of gametes and form zygote and undergoes division to form embryo, process is termed embryogenesis. Basic features of sexual reproduction (1) Development of male and female organs. (@) Meiosis occurs in the life cycle, G) Production of large number of male and female gametes. (4) Motility of male gametes (5) The two types of gametes fuse together and the aygote. (©) Zygote produces embryo by different changes, (7) Only the mature individuals can produce the gametes Y Produce a diptoid structure called 740 [ Ry points | Blastogenesis. The process of development of the progenies from reproductive units such as fragments and buds is called blastogenesis. The pro- cess is common in those indi- viduals which are produced by asexual reproduction, Embryogenesis. The process of development of the embryo from the zygote produced by fusion of male and female ga- metes in sexual reproduction is called embryogenesis. This Process occurs in individuals which reproduce by sexual reproduction, SHOES te OF CBOE OLOGY EET) deyHUMAN REPRODUCTION Male Rept ‘Gameipete Magento phe Teron pase “Mon ae (Resco dion) Oration rales —— Gran tir PS satay aa sent —P In| se ‘sm Te Fema | | viene + Herne fOr mie tite see emacve [-] ern /Hysea Won’) cS vs Corsieemet] — roaon oan Ener esa oe “pion ‘corey eproecineands teen cite eons. co a Feriaton Phylcochenial ve *Meosal phase cx ‘econ of rogers ace ron eet "Seay pases cused by sere a pgeroe Fiddle 7 cat enter (one pad) corpus eiigyms agin ere, Ucn Ejacelatory Doct _repreductiv oo (one pair) _ ‘nee ‘Prostatic urethra “Alkaline, rich in Shae “ + Meni ee, Sperm + cone and oop : THEI agin Nate rpotcie [Semi vie wes Prt pad Cowper (Batu sant) + Ste Ample ton “Ineinaioniglecet fonts 30 milion pews Ava of coda one stage ‘apace f pes Acoma aco *Spermeney ‘taneeany Aion of eat TPIACENTA —Covoa pinata (Font par chron ed eral put he ein asi ‘Hoon *Respeuion + Sorte Eeraon + Barer 1 Enduring role — osiope, pogeeon, CO, Rea, PL HUMAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) + The process of delivery ofthe foetus is called parturition. The signals for parturition originate from the fully Aeveloped foetus andthe placenta, which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex. This releases ‘oxytocin (OT) from the maternal posterior pituitary. OT acts ‘onthe uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions (abour pain), which stimulates further secretion of OT. + Production of milkin the mammary glandsis called lactation. Secretion and storage of milk occur under the influence of ‘prolactin (PRL). The ejection of milk is stimulated by OT. (Colostrum isthe fist milk which comes from the mammary sands, it is rch in proteins low in fat, contains antibodies (eA). “enTaLocued zatGAMETOGENESIS mother cell of ‘Spermatogenesis. The process of formation of sperms from the sperm mother cell involves the following phases testi optnwaToarNsis — OBEN SPrRMMOTHERGELL (an) EOOMOTHER CELL 2M) Wars Oo" @O@ ‘spepwaTpOONIpW fan) OOGONUMTEN) @) ‘rownn pray lanownm | primaliy OOCYTE (aN) [SPEAMATOCYTE 2M) past eisis meDucTonA PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE FIRST a PRIMARY OOCYTE (ON) tan, OO.” (OF = CONDARY | TOovTe ° Coy er RECT ey OD Of” Sac creo PSS ‘SPERMATOZOA (N) ‘Coane SPERMO- GENESIS COND Pou ovum ow) snr [AFig, Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis in Animals. (a) Multiplication phase. The sperms are formed from the sperin mother cells, present in the germinal layer of seminiferous tubules of testis. Some of the mother cells enlarge and divide mitotically to form spermatogonia. () Growth phase. Some of them enter a period of growth and are called primary spermatocytes which are diploid. (©) Maturation phase. These cells divide meiotically to form two haploid, secondary spermatocytes. Bach secondary spermatocyte again divides. Thus one primary spermatocyte forms four haploid spermatids. Spermiogenesis (Spermateliosis). The process of conversion of spermatid into motile ‘spermatozoa is called spermiogenesis. t involves movements of cell organelles characteristics, (of mature sperm such as shrinking of nucleus forming the head, Golgi complex gathers in front of nucleus forming acrosome, change in centriole as distal centriole form axial filament, ‘mitochondria forms spiral sheath and middle piece. All these changes are aimed at keeping the spermatozoa smal, light and motile Oogenesis. The process of formation of ovum from the ovum mother cells of ovary. It is similar to spermatogenesis und completed in three ‘phase and mataration phase. Similarities between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis, 1. Both the processes start with primordial of gonads and occur inside the yonad, 2. Both the processes are completed in three phases viz. multiplicative phase, growth term cells derived from germinal epithelium phases i. multiplication, growth and ] Rey points | ‘@ In seasonally breeding ani- mals, testes show testicular cycle. Spermatogenesis isa continu- ‘ous process, while oogenesis isa dixcontinuows proce, # Spermatogenesis starts after the attainment of puberty, while oogenesis begins even during foetal development. Spermatogenesis is completed in about 74 days in human male, while oogenesis takes about 12-13 years In spermatogenesis, sper- matogonium produces four sperms while in oogenesis, ‘one oogonium produces one ovum and 2 or 3 polar bodies. In testes of man, there are seven classes of spermatogo- nia on the basis of their size and cytological properties Golgi rest. Part of Golgi body which is lost during spermio- genesis. Nebenkern. Mitochondrial spiral of sperm. ‘Spermatozoa leaving the tes- tes are incapable of fertiliza- tion. They acquire fertilizability during their pas- sage through epididymis (18 to 24 hours). Gynosperm. Sperm with 2A +X chromosome, Androsperm. Sperm with 22A + Y chromosome, ‘Oogenesis in human female is ‘maturation and show meiosis inthe maturation phase, toate i roces ue 3. Both the processes. produce haploid gametes oe ae MODERN abo OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEET)Differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis, Spermatogenesis ‘Oogenesie iy roca nth jem mote cells of tees Ay opemmtoga (° (sero govt nd diferention farm pinay sears «Sateen er ey. 6} After meiosis, the primary spermatocyte gives two seco © ‘Fermatocyes which ar haploid and inert produces tw sna spermatid (4 Back spematid produces usage sperm or spematozo, Ths four sperms we formed. Spematouna are delicate, micoocope ae () Troccrs in the ovam mother cells of form primary oocyte (@) The oogonia instead of forming ovcytes, grow and act as nurse cells. (G) Aftermeosis, the primary oocyte gives on bigger el called secondary ‘ocyte and other small polar body andthe formes produces Irge eg ‘or ovum anda small polar body. (8) There is no such differeniaton, Only oe ovum is formed as a result of eogenesis. The eg is small rounded structure which is non-mne. structures. Sexual reproduction in humans: Sepent repentorton fm humans The epee atm is omed of primary sex ran viz. ses ant owes, | REY PCANTS I which produce haploid gametes by meiosis. Secondary sex organs, organs which perform important functions in reproduction but neither produce gametes nor secrete sex hormones, are called secondary sex organs, e.g. prostate and seminal vesicles, cowper's slands in male and fallopian tubes and also produce sex hormones uterus and vagina in the Mammals in which testes de female. Accessory sex organs, the distinct structures or characters which distinguish sex scend into the scrotum. of a species in appearance viz. facial hair, broad larynx, etc. in male and breasts in the Peculiar spermatozoa. As- female. caris has amoeboid spermato- @ MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM zoa devoid of flagellum, Some crustaceans also have a atypi- ‘© Mesorchium. A fold of peri- toneum that holds testes in place in vertebrates, except Characreristics of human reproduction cal sperms, ) Human beings are non-seasonal breede1 isno 7 ‘© Cryptorchidism. A condition = idomataind to lapohenhairs in which testes do not descend (ii) In human females the ability to produce young ones begins at menarche (beginning of menses) and ends at menopause (stopage of menses), ly. meat tad (Gi) In human females the reproductive phases has 28 day repeated menstrual cycle and» Sperms. Form about 10% of __ Fertilization is internal. the ejaculated semen. (jv) There is vivipary, i, giving birth to young ones and foetus develops inside uterus Protandry. Spermatozoa ma- and is nourished by joint special structure called placenta. ture earlier than ova in bi- (©) Infants can be fed on mother's milk. sexual animals. Examples : (vi) Parental care is very well developed. ‘Hydra, earthworm. © The human male reproductive system includes testes, epididymis, vasa deferentia, * Andrology. Branch of medi- ; aa ym cine concerned with diseases seminal vesicle, prostate gland, urethra, bolbourethral gland and intromittant organo font ney ah The i * Tyson’s Glands. Another © The Testes (Spermaries) or Male Gonads tena for preputal glande, 9 In the embryo, the testes develop along the posterior wall ofthe abdomen, Shorly aceous plans of gions andl before birth, they descend into a fleshy sac scrofum which hangs away from the inner surface of prepuce. body wall between the thighs. The penis and scrotum together constitute the male _* Spermatorrhoea. An involun- external genitalia, tary discharge of semen, with- © If the testes do not descend, sterility occurs because normal sperm production is Out orgasm. inhibited by internal body temperature, hence a cooler temperature is required, * Spermatophore. A capsule ‘Temperature in the scrotum is about 2 to 3° C cooler than those in the abdomen, ene: spore Tailure of testes to descend down into scrotal sac is called cryptorchidism. E Sp ranatolony, Skid dy nee * In the wall of the scrotum, there is a layer of smooth muscle, the dartos muscle, * SPermatology. Study of for Which respond to changing temperature. In the cold, this muscle contracts and the sperm and/or seminal secre= testes are drawn closer to the abdomen for warmth, while heat causes the muscles to tion. Telax and the testes descend further for cooling. ‘© Spermicide (Spermatocide). * Internally, the testes are subdivided roughly into many compartments, each of which An agent that destroys sper- Contains tightly coiled tubules, the seminiferous tubules, where sperms are produced ™atozoa. by spermatogenesis from sperm mother cells. © Along the outer wall of these tubules, are specialized cells, called spermatogonia. ‘© Surrounding the spermatogonia and the developing sperm are large cells called Sertoli cells. These cells provide protection, support and nourishment to the developing sperm, Sertoli cells provide a barrier that protects sperm from an attack by the body's immune system. HUMAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) 7.43«© After puberty, millions of sperm mature each day. A male continues to make sperm rane ey unt death though the aumbe of living sperms are reduced with age ‘© Each pjaculation release semen (a volume of fluid containing upto 300 milion Spars). Ita male releasing fewer than 60 million sperm. is usually considered infertile. Wr of @ Matwag sper are washed down in seminiferous tubules by secertions from Sertoli cells and begin a long journey that may end in fertilization. ‘e From the tubules, the sperms enter the epididymis, then the vas deferens and Eventually the urethra. Along the way, three accessory glands ~ the seminal vesicles, the prostate and the bulbourethral glands, contributes secretions. Together with the Sperm, these secretions form semen. Thus semen isa thick whitish fluid that contains fluid from accessory glands © Ineach testis, the eps a long coiled tube, where the sperm can be stored while they mature. The wall of the epididymis contains smooth muscle which can Contract in a rhythmic fashion to propel the sperm into the vas deferens during ejaculation. Itincludes one pair of ovaries, two fallopian tubes, a uterus and a vagina. Each ovary is lined by germinal epithelium of germ cells which form primary follicles. A primary follicle ‘changes into a Graafian follicle under the influence of FSH. Ovulation is controlled by LH, ‘Ovaries also secrete estrogens and progesterone hormones. Fallopian tubes conduct the ‘ovum towards the uterus ; the uterus is site of foetal growth during pregnancy while the ‘Vagina acts asa birth canal. Vulva is external genitalia of female, Breasts are accessory seX- ‘organs of female. Their size depends upon estrogens of ovary at puberty and lactogenic ‘hormone after the parturition. ‘¢ Female Gonads ~ The Ovaries ‘The paired ovaries produce an egg each month. Ovaries lie on the lateral wall of the ‘upper pelvic cavity and are held in position by supportive ligaments. Each ovary is covered with a layer of germinal epithelium. Within this covering there are small sac-like structures, called ovarian (Graafian) follicles. These follicles pass through different stages of development : primary follicles, secondary follicles and mature follicles. ‘© The small primary follicle consists ofa single layer of cells and contains an immature ovum. The follicie cells support and protect the developing ovum and also produce the hormone estrogen, which maintain a woman's secondary sex characteristics. © The larger secondary follicle develops from the primary follicle and supports the maturation of ovum. ‘© The next stage is the graafian follicle which has several layers of cells and a fluid filled cavity surrounding the developing ovum. ‘© The immature ovum released from the graafian follicle is called ovulation. Ovulation ‘occurs about once a month. After ovulation, the follicle structure changes into a hormone secreting structure, the corpus luteum, before degrading. ‘© The development ofthe follicle and the release of an immature ovum at ovulation are both initiated and controlled by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. The ovum will become completely mature only if itis fertilized by a sperm. ‘© At the time of birth, a female baby has about 500000 oocytes. Duri about 500 will develop sufficiently to be released by ovulation. ‘* Oviducts (Fallopian tubes) ‘The two oviduets convey the secondary oocyte to the uterus. One end of ae rr ay mre me of nh te fimbriae, hangs loosely over the ovary. Fertilization usually occurs third of the fallopian tube. ary. Fenilization usually occurs in the upper © Uterus ‘The uterus is a hollow pear-shaped muscular organ, where the fertilized o and develops. I is pally covered by peritoneum and the cavity fs lined by endometrium. The uterus consists of three areas : the body (expanded upper portion), the lathmus (constricted central portion) and the cervin. . 744 MODERN'S | Ry ecints | '¢ Males produce sperm and the hormones that create male sexual characteristics ‘¢ The testes ie in the scrotum @ Interstitial cells (Leydig’s cells) secrete testosterone which initiates spermatogen- esis. @ During spermatogenesis, spermatogonia divide by mi- tosis to produce primary sper- matocytes. Primary spermato- cytes undergo meiosis | to produce secondary spermato- Gytes, which undergo meiosis Ii to form haploid spermatid, ‘which mature into sperm. ‘¢ Sperm are stored in the epid- idymis. ‘¢ Inthe wall of scrotum smooth muscle ~ dartos, responds to changing, temperatures. # Testosterone is the main sex hormone in males. | Ry Ponts | # At the time of birth a female baby has about 500000 pri- mary oocytes. During her life she will make no more. # The ovum will become com- pletely mature only if it is fer- tilized by a sperm. Immature ovum is secondary oocyte. «In the female body, unlike in male, the urethra does not Participate in reproduction. * Estrogen and progesterone are sex hormones in females. ‘* The human menstrual cycle averages 28 days. * Menstruation occurs when the corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone production declines. © The first menstrual cycle is called menarche. abe OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEED.‘¢ The wall of the uterus contains three distinct layers. The outer thin covering (peritoneum) is actually a continuation of the peritoneal membrane. The middle thick layer (myometrium) contains smooth muscles. The inner lining, called endometrium contains abundant blood vessels and glands to nourish and protect the embryo. ‘If fertilization occurs, the early embryo burrows into this layer through a process called implantation. If fertilization and implantation, do not occur, portions ofthis layer are shed and replaced on a monthly basis during the menstrual cycle. Vagina Vagina is a flexible muscular tube extending from the cervix to the body's exterior. ‘¢ The female genitalia are collectively called the vulva. The vulva includes two sets of fleshy folds called labia, the mons pubis and the clitoris. 1s The female reproductive system has five major functions. 1. It produces and transports the female gametes. It receives the sperm of the male 4. Itprovides a site for fertilization. 4 supports, protects and nourishes the development of the fertilized egg, embryo and foetus. ‘5. Itprovides a birth canal for the new-born infant «¢ Inaddition to these reproductive functions, the female produces milk from mammary glands to nourish the newborn child. ‘¢ The primary organs that accomplish these tasks are apair of ovaries, a pair of uterine tubes (oviduets or fallopian tubes), uterus and the vagina. (2 STRUCTURE OF MAMMALIAN SPERM Structure. A mammalian sperm is minute, microscopic, flagellated and motile gamete with no nutritive material, protective envelopes and most of cell organelles like ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, etc, It is basically formed of four parts, each performing a specific function: 1, Head. Shape of head varies in different mammals. It is generally oval and flat (in san, bull, rabbit). Basically the head is formed of two parts : Acrosome (Gr. akron = extremity ; soma = body). Its small pointed structure present at the tip of nucleus. It is formed from a part of Golgi body of spermatid, During the sperm. entry, the acrosome secretes a lytic enzyme called hyaluronidase which helps in the penetration of ovum, ‘Nucleus. It is generally long, narrow and pointed but is flat and oval in human sperm. It is formed by condensation of nuclear chromatin of spermatid and loss of RNA, nucleolus and acidic proteins. Chemically, the nucleus is formed of deoxyribonucleoprotein (DNA + basic proteins), It is the carrier of genetic information. ‘Acrosome and anterior half of nucleus are covered by a fibrillar sheath galea, ‘Aig. A Mammalian Sperm a revealed by lecton Microscope. 2. Neck. It is the smallest part of spermatozoan and may be listinct. It is formed of [ Rey points | ‘* Discovery of Human Sperm. By Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1677. ‘ Intraabdominal Testes. Tes- tes that remain permanently inthe abdomen asin elephant, whale, seal, egg-laying mam- mals. © Ejaculation and Urination. These two processes cannot occur together because erec- tion of penis is accompanied by closure of the bladder sphincter, ‘* Castration (Gelding). Remov- al of testes in the male, or of ovaries in the female. ‘* Gynaecomastia. Enlarged functional mammary glands ina male. ¢ Inguinal Hernia. Protrusion of intestine into the scrotum. through the inguinal canal. * Prostatectomy. Surgical re- ‘moval of the prostate gland. © Vaginal Coelom. Coelom in the scrotal sac. Testis lies out- side it. Sometimes, the distal part of axoneme is uncovered and is called end piece. ‘wo centrioles perpendicular to each other and is formed from the centrosome of spermatid. * Viability. Ttis the period upto centriole 4 microtubular triplet structure having 9 +0 arrangement. Proximal centriole sina f in the posterior surface of the nucleus and is perpendicular to main axis Of the sperm, Distal centriole is along longitudinal axis of the sperm. 2 SWAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) which the sperm is able to fer- tilize an ovum. Viability of human sperm is about 24 hours. 7.48ems am nd ana yee Dc DA Bw ponTs | ody ae ves ise wxcnee of he ser : + Middle plece. It ies behind the neck and is ‘yindrical in human sperm. 115 formed Types OFFI a of oat a spiral caled nebenkern around proXa De ra ae Middle piece (A) Type 0” ERO” is is power house of sperm. alle nepeet i neleus neck a mide piece of STE ss cover oun of YT tent sic mee ical i a (Flagellum), 1 is Tongest part two parts central contractile and micron ute protoplasmic sheath. Axoneme is of sperm. Its slender and tapering tis formed of Mets ular prt called aXONEME Cr filament, and 9". hal eggs. RRS contain ormed of 11 proteinous microtubules Srrangedin) 24° yey arc ot thee YP pt tn of mie pie Ya paerovectha OF eee Ses Prcmner Sometimes, a ring centrioke may be Pre aoainaten Tall shows ashing movements Which OVS forward push to the sperm. jicrpan very small amount A cae igs yaa, sen urchin, Ame joxus, Tunicates phen lecttnal eggs contain We) erate amount of YOIK 6.R-r motnworm, Dipnoi fishes, am- jhibians. Ph Macrolecithal or megalecithal er polylecithal eggs conatin large quantities of yolk. birds fishes, ‘otles, prototherian mammals land insects, 4B) According to distribution of Sol Egg are of following pe Jofome-lecithal of Ssolecithal hhave evenly distributed yolk ee Poriters, — Amphioxus, Echinodermates. 2 Heterolecithal o anisolecithal TIEDS CONATNSTAPLOS Teor nOMOROMeS Fig, Haman Gameies Shave localized yolk. They are (@ STRUCTURE OF OVUM lowing types : Eo hy Telotecithal eggs in, amphib- iene a * i fans— yolk concentrated towards animals, single celled. Ovum is surrounded by primary membrane one side citrine Ta (b) Meiolecithal eggs of birds, 3 wknd by Gmafian follicle or lining of oviduct. These layers. P les are large and yolk occu may be albaminous as in amphibians or may Be ‘calcareous rarer bie poy ay be porous, as in birds. (Central ‘eggs in innects 2 ee a mes itisnoted. have yolk inte cent ith Hoa ie ¢ 7 re wil pole eres fo te the "The pole from which polar bodies are given offs Plasm, forming @ thin nye cae ana poke w the oppeite i termed as vegeal poe. Ths it said to have one Par Tas cpm mba Fareed ding Go mia ia mogul! vedi ad Ser ria nee having chromatin network is bounded 1 lei aoc Te ace cas pomocs cle Al sina es conan some (2 Inde th yok and ur reserve material to provide food called yolk. The cytoplasm of ovum is called ooptasm. It rounded by Sbumen and water: lacks centrosome but contains cortical proof a nected ws omer sranuls derived fom Golgi bodies inits peripheral ge Pine up ofcalciumes. TRoncleidoic eggs neu 3, acide ogge in such og Aig, Structure of unfertilized lized egg of fog. : AF ip. Types of Ova with Regard to Amo ount of Yolk MODERN’ abo OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOG) 1Functions of Ovum menus eal’ haploid set of chromosomes [ &y roms | 2. After fertilization, forms zygote which gives rise to young animal by development. N (D) Types of eggs according to 3. Egg membranes protect the developing embryo. the type of development. The eggs are of different sizes. The smallest egg is that of mouse (0.075 mm) and 1. Determinate or mosaic eggs. targestis that of ostrich bird (175 mm). In such eggs cleavage is of deteminate type and each part of egg has a definite fate eg. Ponifers, platyhelminthes, anne- Eggs have special coatings in addition to plasma membrane. They protect the eggs from !i¢® arthropods and molluscs. 2. Indeterminate or regulative jars, mechanical injury and provide food, Ththis si eggs.in veachearly blas- iar membre by eens leg Veinenenbeae. «nah ae 2. Secondary membrane is formed by follicle cells of the ovary that surrounds the ers may give rise to complete em- ‘ovum. Chorion in egg of Herdmania and zona pellucida in mammalian egg. bryo eg. echinoderms and chor- 3, Tertiary membrane secreted by gland of oviduct. Jelly layer around eggs of fishes dates. and amphibians-albumen, shell membranes and shell around the eggs of reptiles and birds. (@ THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE Phase of Cycle Hormonal Changes Tissue Changes [Ovarian _ {Endometrial Pituitary | ‘Ovary ‘Ovarian Endometrial | Folicular [Menstrual [FSH and LH secretion] Estrogen ‘and | Primary follicles grow| Outer two-thirds o} (days 1-4) low Progesterone remain endometrium is shed] low Jwith accompanying] bledding Estrogen secretion| Follicles grow ;|Mitotic _division| rises (due to FSH|Graafian — follicle| increases thickness of| stimulation _of | develops (due to FSH|endometrium ; spirall follicles) stimulation) arteries develop (due to oestradiol stimulation) Estrogen secretion| Graafian _ follicle|No change falls ruptures abd secon dary oocyte _ is| extruded into uterine| tube Progesterone and| Development —_of|Glandular_develop- oestrogen secretion] corups luteum (due to| ment in endometrium| increase, then fall LH stimulation) ;|(due to progesterone regression of corpus stimulation) Juteum, Follicular Proliferative | FSH slightly higher than] (days 5-13) LH secretion in early| follicular phase JOvulatory {Proliferative {LH surge (and (day 14th) FSH) stimulated by possitive feedback oestradiol Luteal |Secretory LH and FSH decrease} (days 15-28) (due to negative feedback from steroids) Ciel Hormonal Control of Menstrual Cycle. Gonadotropin releasing hormone canto I Rey PCINTS I also called Gonadotropin releasing Factor (GnRF), is secreted by the hypothalamus of the brain, which stimulates the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing Sudden upsurge of LH-on 14th ‘hormone (LH). FSH stimulates the ovarian follicles to produce oestrogens during proliferative day of cycle Causesovulation. Phase, LH stimulates the corpus luteum of the ovary to secrete progesterone, Menstrual phase is caused by the reduction of progesterone and oestrogens. Proliferative phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens. LH causes ovulation. Secretory phase is caused by increased production of progesterone. HUNAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) 1a|ANO FSH Re PCINTS | UHAND FSH _LHANDFSH Ut [RELEASE MMBITED RELEASE SIMULATED RELEASE IN-IBITED SE SeseN Br ESTROGEN [AGE AT WHICH. ANIMALS Bveipoes "wes ; "ATTAIN PUBERTY it ieee SO ‘16 years Elephant yt 8 yeas ee : tome ements 5 Menopause is the period whey 5 MMulaton and menstrual cycle 2 esa stop in human female. It generally . Proce sTERONE Sceurs between 45—S5 years. ‘There is po menopause in male. i y * = ots = DEVELOPING ——_coppus LUTEUM cocvre FOIE oyy pron DEVELOPING SS 0OCCe BER™ —_ c BLEEDING AND 'SLOUGHING OF Pret RE ee SECRETORY MENSES PROLIFERATION” PHASE o| 8 0 % 0 BS ons Puberty ? Tes the period of sexual maturity. It comes between 13 to 16 years in the male and between 10 to 14 ySars in the female. It is controlled by testosterone in the male and ‘estrogens in the female. It is characterized by the development of secondary sexual characters. (© Precocious puberty. Normally a woman's fertile life starts from the age of pu- berty (about 13 years), but under some abnormal conditions like high level of sex hormones (LH and PSH), menstruation starts at an early age than the nor- mal, itis called precocious puberty. O._Orgasm in female. During intercourse, under the influence of various stimuli, the female becomes excited. The clitorial and genital folds swell and vaginal wall secretes a moist lubricating fluid. The breasts swell and nipples become erect. Orgasm is associated with the contraction of vaginal wall, At orgasm the cervix drops down into the upper portion of vagina and creates a syringing,ac- tion on the pool of semen. Gi) FERTILIZATION Fertilization. It is a process by which male and female gametes come. ‘close and fuse to form zygote. The union of two gametes is termed as syngamy and intermixing of nucle ss amphimixis. ‘Steps involved in fertilization are : (1) Encounter of spermatozoa and ova. It may occur inside fertilization) or outside the body(extemal fertilization). ‘he body (internal (2) Capacitation and contact. Sperm (antifrtlizin) and ovum (eri stilizin antiertlizin reaction which is highly specific fora species, ee 748 Mn abe OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEED(3) Acrosome reaction and penetration. Golgi bodies of acrosome secrete enzyme hylanronidase which dissolves the membranes of ovum so that materials of sperm can erate Pa) Activation of ovum. Immediately after the apical ip of acrosomal tubule touches the egg plasma membrane, fusion of both membranes takes place and a single continuous ae” 92 mosaic membrane is formed. Thus plasma membrane of both gametes become conti-nuous Wale S348 days and form zygote. At this time certain changes occur in the cytoplasm of egg which are Cow 284 days collectively termed as activation of ovum. It includes following events an eee (a) Fertilization cone formation. Coming in contact withthe acrosomal filament of Chimpanace 210390 se spermatozoan, the cytoplasm of the egg bulges forward o produce a conical projection, the Cow 180 days ferilization cone. It gradually engulfs the spermatozoan, ee (b) Cortical reactions and fertilization membrane formation. It may differ from Rima, 8 30 one group of animals tothe other, but, in most groups, it fundamentally culminates into the Rabb 2237 day. formation of a membrane, called fertlizarion membrane, outside egg plasma membrane. Rat 20days ‘This membrane blocks the entrance of late arriving spermatozoa, {c) Metabolic activation. Following metabolic changes occur in egg at the time of feriization. (@) Changes in plasma membrane. The permeability of egg plasma membrane increases forthe molecules of water, glycol and ions of K*, PO,” etc, Its electrical potential becomes ror positive in the beginning but more negative later on. (@ Ionic changes. The concentration of cations such as Na‘, Ca* and K* changes during fertilization (i) Changes in coenzyme. During fertilization the inactive enzyme NAD-kinase ‘becomes active and changes NAD into NADP and NADPH by phosphorylation (iv) Respiratory changes . Fertilization increases the rate of respiration in those eggs in which maturation is completed before fertilization (e.¢., sea urchin) and decreases in Rey tne eps which raion ccc fe mater dvison (ees Chcepiers) | REY POINTS fj ‘The respiratory rate increases for the release of more ATP. (©) Change in the rate of protein synthesis. During fertilization the inhibitor enzymes a removed to initiate action of protein synthesis. Yes 3- 4m of semen contains 80 (vi) Initiation of mitosis. It takes place due to following agencies : 100 million spermatozoa, (@) Immediately after fertilization, the rate of DNA synthesis increases many- folds and * Virus infection of mother eg. soalso the uptake of cytoplasmic DNA Polymerase enzyme, required inthe biosynthesis of PY rubella (German measles) ‘ Inaverage human ejaculate of DNA. virus or exposure to certain (©) The sperm introduces its own centriole and by contributing second centriole it initiates chemical may cause malfor- the formation of spindle, ‘mation in developing embryo. (5) Migration of pronucleus and amphimixis. To perform the act of amphimixis, the Such agents are called terato- sperm nucleus has to perform two activities Le. it has to become pronuclel and to migrate gens. fromthe ste of penetration othe site of amphimixis. The fusion of male and female pronuclei_» All the systems in developing is termed amphimixis foetus are formed by the three Significance of Fertilization ‘month's of pregnancy. 1. Itstimulates the egg to complete its maturation. 2. The fusion of male and female pronuclei in fertilization restores the diploid number &f chromosomes and activation of secondary oocytes results into mature form of ovum. ‘The ovum which is in quiescent state with low metabolic rate restores its normal metabolic activity 3. Fertilization initiates cleavage or segmentation. 4. The combination of the chromatin material from two different parents forms the Physical basis of biparental inheritance and variation. ‘5. Centriole of sperm initiates first division of zygote nucleus and further entry of sperm 's checked by fertilization membrane. Ovipary, Vivipary and Ovovivipary It is development of embryo inside its egg delivered outside the body. The ferlization may be external or internal. Vivipary. It is the development of embryo inside the uterus of female connected by ‘Means of placenta. The fertilization is internal. The female gives birth to the young-one. Ovovivipary. The phenomenon of retaining eggs and the development of embryo in the body tit birth without forming any organic connection for obtaining extra nourishment i.e. *° placenta formation, Fertilization is internal. HOVAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) fetu CLEAVAGE Cleavage. The series of divisions that occur inside the fertilized egg or Zygote bed transform: into ‘a multicellular body called blastula is called cleavage. They produce blastomeres, ‘Characteristics of Cleavage 1 Cleavage divisions are mitotic and occu one afte the other, However the ate depends upon species, amount of yolk and temperature mm During cleavage owt does not take place and size and volume of embryo remains the same and the size of blastomeres is reduced. Sanne and cytoplasmic ratio becomes very Tow for zygote and as & result of which cleavage increases. 4. During cleavage general shape ‘of embryo does not change. 5. All blastomeres divide simultaneously during early cleavage 6. For rapid nuclear division, there is great increase in the synthesis of DNA. 7.0, consumption increases during cleavage. ‘The cleavage division differs from ordinary mitotic division in following ways + {The cleavage division is not followed by growth of daughter cells before they divide tut during ordinary mitotic division, each division is followed by a growth of daughter * cals before the next division starts. >. The rat of cleavage depends in different species on temperature but during mitosis it is not so '. During cleavage nuclear and cytoplasmic ratio is changed. 4 During cleavage the blastomeres divide simultaneously but in ordinary mitosis all the daughter cells divide approximately at the same time. ', The cleavage differs from ordinary mitosis of large sized zygote, and it is meant basically for reducing the sizeof blastomeres. Pattern of Cleavage. Three common patterns of cleavage are radial, bilateral and spiral cleavage. . Radial cleavage. In radial cleavage the successive cleavage planes cutting straight through the egg are at right angle to one another. The resultant blastomeres become symmetrically, exposed around the animal-vegetal axis. Such type of cleavage occurs in sponges, coclenterates and a few molluscs. (i) Bilateral cleavage. In this patter of cleavage the blastomeres are so arranged that the right and left sides becomes apparent, e.g., Cephalopods, a few Echinoderms and Vertebrates. (iii) Spiral cleavage. In this pattern of cleavage, the furrows are so formed that the blastomeres are arranged in a spiral manner around the animal-vegetal axis e.g., Flatworms, annelids and molluscs. ‘The Planes of Cleavages During cleavage, different cleavage furrows may divide the egg from different planes. 1. Meridional plane. Cleavage furrow passes through the centre of animal-vegetal axis and bisects both the poles of the egg. ¢.g., Frog. 2. Vertical plane. Cleavage furrow passes in a direction from the ani le the vegetal pole. e.g. first cleavage furrows of Amia calva and chick. on the 5. Equatorial plane, bisects the egg aright angles to main axis and halfway between petal poles. e.g, frst cleavage plane of eggs of higher mammals. 4. Latitudinal plane. Its similar to equatorial, but it courses through the cytopl ‘Types of cleavage. Amount and pattern of distribution of yolk determine the "i cleavage. It is of following types line the type of cpa abate cleavage nlc, ome and ight egg, the ye ivide completely. It results into coeloblastula ie. bl wrth a cenral cavity called blastocoel, Holoblastic cleavage is of two typen (a) Equal holoblastic cleavage. The cleavage produces approxines blastomeres throughout. It occurs in alecithal eggs of rabbit and micoleche equal sized squirt, amphioxus, marsupials and other placental mammals, ecithal eggs of sea 750 MODERNS abe ] Ry points 1 Parturition. It is a process of expulsion of foetus from the trterus. It starts at the end of pregnancy. It takes place by the rhythmic contractions and propulsion movements of Bterine wall. The cervix be- Comes soft and dilates at that time. The foetus is pushed down into the genital passage. Generally the head comes out first. If legs come first then baby is called breech baby. ‘The period of the year when an animal may breed, iscalled its breeding season e.g. au- tumn for sheep, and spring and autumn for bitches. The oestrous cycles run only dur- ing the breeding season in monoestrous animals. The ‘oestrous cycles run through- out the year in polyestrous animals e.g. Cow, Buffalo. The suspension of oestrous cycle in female animal throughout the non-breeding season, is called the state of anoestrum. é dp Na SPRAL RADIAL BILATERAL ‘AFig, Spiral, radial and bilateral patterns of cleavage in animal cegs. OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEET)@ eum. OQ UNEGUNL suPeRACM OBeEON, 5 @OF 0.20.0 oe eS ‘AFig Type of Blasulse (#) Unequal holoblastic cleavage. This cleavage in later divisions gives rise to unequal tuastomeres, small micromeres and large megameres. It occurs in telolecithal eggs of bony fishes and amphibians. . 2 Meroblastic Cleavage. In this type of cleavage, division occurs only inthe small amount of metabolically active cytoplasm. The yolk remains undivided. It is found in colecithal eggs. Itis of two types : ()Dcolal Cleavage. Iti confined tothe active cytoplasm located atthe animal pole snd occur in meiolecithal eggs of reptiles, birds and egg laying mammals. It results into bastla called discoblastula, = an (@ Superficial Cleavage. It occurs in the centrolecithal eggs of insects. The nucleus placed inthe centre of yolk divides repeatedly to form many daughter nuclei which migrate tothe peripheral yolk free cytoplasm. It then cleaves into many uninucleate blastomeres ranged around the yolk. It results into superficial blastla consisting of single layered epibelium enclosing yolk instead of blastocoe!. Table : Stages of Embryonic Development in Human [ageot Embryo [Size TissuevOrgans formation | Re points | © ‘A erilized egg isa blue print of future development. A fertilized egg divides mitotically to form number of cells. These cells show ‘morphogenetic movements to arrange themselves in three germinal layers. This arrangement initiates the phases of differentiation and. specialisation. Different groups of cells of a particular germinal layer change their shape and get differentiated intostructures or organs of the individual. All the cells with different developmental potentialities form the different organs (brain, eye, heart, skin etc.) Fertilized egg contains genetic information from both the parents. It is stored in DNA. During differentiation the characters are expressed as a result of sequence of events. 34 weeks [4mm _| Different tissues begin to specialize, heart begins to beat and appear. 16-24 mm | Head becomes larger and brain begins to develop. pump blood and arm and leg buds: Zygote undergoes 5-6 weeks. 7-8 weeks __|28-40 mm | The body organs formed, nervous system begins coordinating, eyes well developed, nostrils also developed. [Equal [Determinate (Mosaic) + Cleavage furrows extend completely through the ot 10 rigidly sealed, but the balstomeres exhibit Plasticity. eg. echino- ‘ers, chrodates, tome tre + aie ts pled ur aces] Serta Indeterminate tp er im sere te Te dene [Unequal *+ Unequal sized blastomeres eg, amphibians. Bilateral + When the first three divisions do not cut along the axis of ex ‘6g, Clenophorans ‘each tier alternate with those ofthe ier above and below it ‘Nematodes, establish + Two ofthe four blasto- meres are smaller than the other two and thus symmetry ¢g., tuni- + Cleavage furrows are restricted to the germinal disc o yolk free region and yolk remains undivided ‘eg. reptiles and birds [Superficial bilateral Sa ian NOS Cleavage furrows divide ‘mpabians ‘zygote cleus repeatedly rout the division of egg ‘roplasm. eset HUMAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) 751Significance of cleavage 1. lt produces a large number of cells from a single celled zygote by repeated divisions and results in the formation of embryo. 2. [tprepares the embryo frat eon of cells to their fixed position during gastrulation. 3. Preparation and initiation of process of cell differentiation. Gastrulation Gastrulation. It is a phase of embryonic development during which cell movements ‘establish the three primary germinal layers and initiates morphogenesis. ‘The most important features of gastrulation in all animals are: (1) Complex but orderly and irreversible morphogenetic movements in masses. (2) The rhythm of cellular division is slowed down. (G) Growth if any is insignificant. (4) The nuclei become more active. (5) Formation of archenteron surrounded by endoderm. (©) The type of metabolism changes and rate of oxidation is intensified. (1) Chemodifferentiation starts by synthesis of new proteins. ‘The formative movements are of two types ie. Epiboly and Emboly. @&- BLASTULA —_EPISOLY—_BLATOPORE. Da © INGRESSION —INVOLUTION _DELAMINATION ‘O © éy BLASTULA__INVAGINATION _BLASTOPORE ‘AF. (A) Gastulaton by ectodermal overgrowth (epboly) (@) Three forms of Endoderma ingrowh (emboly) (©) Gastation by Invagination. ‘A. Kpiboly. It invloves stretching and spreading movements of ectoderm forming cells to surround the embryo on all the sides except at one pole called blastopore. . Emboly. Its the shifting or migration ofthe cells in such a way so as to form internal layers of mesoderm and endoderm of embryo. It can occur by five methods. (1) Invagination. Its the simplest type of emboly. In this method, the vegetal pole side of blastla simply caves in or pushes into the interior e.g. Amphioxus and Invertebrates, {@) Invotution. It is active rolling in of the endodermal and mesodermal cells from the surface tothe interior through blastopore e.g, Frog (G) Ingression. I isthe proliferation of cells from the inner surface of blastoderm 10 biastocoel which gets filled up with the new cells and results in the formation of solid gastula. The archenteron appears later on by sping up of intemal mass of cells. t may be unipolar as in Obela or apolar as in Hydra. (4) Delamination, Separation of sheets of cells so as to form tw and hypoblast eg. chick, mammals. we Commertznt volves migration of Wastomeres fom the ote suse towards Formation of three germinal layers in a mammalian embi FY0. The blastodermic vesicle is surounded by outer cellular layer (trophoectoderm), The blastodermie veces shows internal cluster of cells due to differentiation This cluster of cells is called inne on ras. Now the morphogenetic movements (epioly.emboly ete. of the cells in smal mecee or sheets take place. As a result three germinal layers (ie, endoderm, mesoderma ectoderm) are formed. , 7 752 wolving large 0 layers called epiblast MODERN abe OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEET)of Endoderm. Some cells from the inner cells mass detach. Cells move in sheets or masses in the blastocoel. These are the potential endodermal cells. These cells snrange themselves as second layer inner to outer layer of blastodermic vesicle. The blastocoe! ‘and a new cavity appears. This new cavity is called archenteron or primitive gut ‘Tis archenteron will give rise to gut tract. Formation of Mesoderm. At the margin of the embryonic disc, cells multiply at the rate. The thickness of the embryonic disc increases. These cells detach from the ‘embryonic disc and give rise to mesoderm, Formation of Eectoderm. After the formation of mesoderm, the cells of the embryonic ise arange themselves 50 as to form the ectoderm, Fate of three germ layers (Germ layers Structures derived from germ layers | (Baodorm ~ Epidermis of skin, hair, arector pili muscles, nails, sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands and chromatophores (pigment ea of sin ; ~ Enamel of teeth, salivary glands, mucous membrane of lips, cheeks, gums, part of the floor of the mouth and part of palate, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses. Lower part of anal canal. ~ Nervous system including all neurons, neuroglia (except microglia), and Schwann cells. Piamater and arachnoid mater, = Conjunctiva, comea, lens of eye, muscles of iris, vitreous humour, retina, lacrimal gland. External ear, outer layer of tympanic membrane, membranous labyrinth (internal ear.) ~ Pituitary gland, pineal gland and medulla of adrenal glands. ~ Mammary glands, outer surface of labia minora and whole of labia majora. = Terminal part of male urethra, /Mesoderm = Muscles except iris muscles. ~ Connective tissues including loose areolar tissue, ligaments, tendons and the dermis of ski — Specialised connective tissues like adipose tissue, reticular tissue, catilage and bone. — Dentine of teeth. - Heart, all blood vessels, lymphatics, blood cells, spleen. = Kidneys, ureters, trigone of urinary bladder. - Coelomic epithelium (mesothelium of pleural, pericardial and peritoneal cavities) — Duramater, microglia = Sclera, choroid, ciliary body and iris. Basis of tympanic membrane. = Cortex of adrenal glands, — Mesenteries. = Notochord. — Reproductive system except prostate, Endoderm — Epithelium of mouth, part of palate, tongue, tonsils, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines including upper part of anal canal (not lower part of anal canal). = Epithelium of Eustachian tube, middle ear, inner layer of tympanic membrane. Epithelium of larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. = Epithelium of gall bladder, liver, pancreas including lands. = Epithelium of urinary bladder except trigone. Epithelium of lower part of vagina, vestibule and inner surface of labia minora. Epithelium of prostate (except inner glandular zone), bulbourethral glands, greater vestibular and lesser vestibular glands. — Epithelium of thyroid, parathyroid and thymus glands. lets of Langerhans, gastric and intestinal HAAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) 753a MORPHOGENESIS AND_DIFFERENTISTION Every living organism starts its life from one celled structure, ZYB0%"» formed by union of male and female gametes. From this one celled stage a multicelivar stage is established by groups of processes of which morphogenesis and differentiation are the outstanding. 1. Morphogenesis. It involves the formation of various structures in an individual organism resulting in the establishment of a young one. “There are two main processes of morphogenesis, namely growth and form. (a) Growth. Molecular growth increases the sizes of the individual cell. The mitotic division of cells, most significant process of growth involves the increase in the number of cells and eventually the increase in bulk and complexity of the organism. (b) Form. The growth leads to the form of an individual plant or animal. The resultant of goin establishes varius structures and organs. When a stocture or an organ has reached seeroemram Limitation of siz, further growth stops. The form is determined by polarity and symmetry. Polarity is of the three dimensions. In an organism one exerts dominance. ‘The head exerts a dominance over the rest of the body. Due to polarity there is @ differentiation of anterior, posterior, right and left sides. Symmetry is the regularity of arrangement of parts in an organism. 2. Differentiation. This involves the operational and functional components of development. The zygote divides repeatedly finally establishing millions of cells all having the same types of genes. Yet these cells differentiate into various organs. A group of cells at ‘early stage maintain certain functions while in later part of life take up different functions. Upto a stage the cells are capable of giving rise to any structure ie. totipotent and after a time when a cell produces. special types of cell, there cannot be any further transformation of cell. The final stage reaches specialisation so thatthe cel is set apart to perform definite function. Cell differentiation may come about in three methods : (i) The developing differences among cells might be the result of progressive changes in gene action. Further, gene activity patterns might change differently in different cells resulting in differentiation. (i) While the gene action might remain constant, the cytoplasmic operations may become progressively altered. (iii) Nuclear and cytoplasmic changes might occur in reciprocal manner. ‘The differentiation may start from molecular level leading to cellular differentiation. (@ PLACENTA Placenta. A vascular organ that unites ‘the foetus to the wall of uterus in all mammals except marsupials and monotremes is called placenta and its formation as placentation, ‘Structure of Epithelio-chorial placenta. Epitheliochorial isthe simple and basic ty of placenta as formed in marsupials, pig, horse, etc. In this case some of the peachy derived from the uterine wall of mother while the other parts are derived from the foetus Maternal components are (a) mucous membrane of ut . Ss (seal metencyme()endteim of fasta bonesneee connective ‘components are: (a) W i : (oy feaal aomecrroptagg Lr el Hoos cpa) fetal connective arn. Functions of placenta. The placenta serv ‘ sag eat wt he (1) Nutrition. Supply of nutrient materials to foetus. (2) Respiration. Surpiy oro foetus and receives CO, back from it. (3) Excretion. Fluid nltogenous wong: oe escape through the placenta (4) Barrier, The placenta is barrie: like eee membrane. (5) Storage. The placenta stores fat, glycogen and iron for the sn eeeale the formation of liver. (6) Hormonal function. The placenta seorcievexeae sooo PefOre ‘estrogen and progesterone in female during pregnancy that terves to mate eros ‘maintain foetus, 754 MODERNS abe OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEEDClassification of placenta. The placenta are of five types depending upon the number of tissue layers that separate the foetal blood from maternal blood. (1) Epitheliochorial placenta (all six layers) e.g. horse, pig and donkey (2) Syndesmochorial placenta (five layers present, uterine epithelium eroded e,g., cow, goat, sheep (3) Endotheliochorial placenta (four layers present-uterine epthelium and connective tissue eroded) e.g. dog and. cat (4) Haemochorial placenta (three layers present-matemal three layers eroded) e.g, primates including human and (5) Haemoendothelial placenta (all the maternal and two foetal tissue layers eroded) e.g. rodents and rabbits ‘Types of placentae according to distribution of villi on chorion. (1) Diffuse placenta. Chorionic villi remain scattered all over the surface of chorion e-g., pig, horse, lemur. @) Cotyledonary placenta. The villi are found in groups or patches e.g. cattle, sheep, deer {@)Zonary placenta. The villi are developed in the form of belt or girdle e.g. cats, dogs (4) Discoidal placenta. The villi continue developing only on one side e.g. mouse, rat, human, monkey. Placenta is of three types, viz. Allantoic, yolk sac and chorionic placenta with regard to foetal membrane that take part in its formation, + Types of Placentae : ‘A. On the basis of foetal membranes involved in the formation of placenta : Placentae are of 3 types : (Yolk sac placenta (i) Allantoic placenta (iti) Chorionic placenta Formed of Yolk sac Formed of allantois Formed of only chorion and chorion e.g., marsupials and chorion e.g., most 8. primates. like kangaroo, opossum. of eutherians. On the basis of intimacy between foetal and maternal blood, placentae are of 5 types on the basis of number of layers separating their bloods (Fig.). @ Epitheliochorial (ji) Syndesmo- (iii) Endothelio- (iv) Haemochorial (v) Haemoen- chorial chorial dothelial 6 layers 5 layers 4 layers 3 foetal layers only foetal eg., odd hoofed e.g, Even-hoofed e.g, carnivores e.g, primates blood capillary mammals (Horse, mammals (dog, cat, lion, (monkeys, apes, eg., rodents ass, pig etc.) (cow, sheep, goat, tiger etc.) lemurs, human and lagomorphs camel etc.) female). (rabbit). eg 8 3 “ a EPITHELIOCHORIAL = = 008 2 9 OF SMNOESUOCHORAL —_ENOOTHELOSHORIN MEMCEHRAL __ MEMOBOOTHEUAL Fig. Different types of placentae found in mammals based on the intimacy of embryonic and maternal tissue. C. On the basis of distributions of villi (Fig.) Placentae are of 6 types : © Diffused (ii) Cotyledonary (iii) Intermediate (iv) Zonary () Discoidal (vi) Metadiscoidal eg. horse e.g. cow, buffalo, e.g., camel eg. elephants eg., rabbit, €.8., primates. ig, whale. sheep, goat giraffe. dog, cat, lion bats, rodents. Placenta is of three types, viz. Allantoic, yolk sac and chorionic placenta with regard to foetal membrane that take part in its formation, HUMAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) iss© PARTURITION I Rey PCINTS I Onset of labour is termed parturition. The human gestation period (duration of Pregnancy) is normally 280 days from the time of last menstrual period to the © Metamorphosis. Transforms. birth of the baby. tion of young into a morpho- ically and physiologically 2. The process of uterine contractions which expe the baby and placenta is called logically an pislogy aly ‘labour pains’, morphosis. It is of 2 types. 3. ‘The ovary (corpus luteum) at this period secretes a hormone, called relaxin, that m ctrogressive matamord softens the connective tissue of pubic symphysis. phosis. When an advanced 4. A fally developed foetus and the placenta initiate the secretion of certain Phosis, Wen om aevanced hormones, which bring about the mild contractions of wenus called foetal ejection Mos uit'eg. Herdmmama, reflex. Secculina 5. Itcan be divided into three phases. The first stage is dilation, which is usually _(b) Progressive metamorpho- lasts from 2to 20 hours and ends up with cervix of uterus fully open or dilated. sis. Whena simplified larva 6. The second state, expulsion which lasts from about 2 to 100 minutes begins with changes into an advanced fall crowning, the appearance of baby's head in the cervix and continues while adult eg. Frog. the baby is pushed, head first, down through the vagina into outside where it draws its fist breath, 7. ‘During this phase, placentation which lasts for 10-1S minutes after the birth of the child, the placenta and the foetal membranes are loosened from the lining of werus by another series of contraction and expelled. They are collectively called after birth or decidua, Hormonal control 1. The foetal ejection reflex tiggers the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. 2. Oxytocin induces stronger contractions ofthe uterine muscles, which ultimately lead to the expulsion of the baby from the uterus, through birth canal 3. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) takes part in the ‘Clock’ that establishes the timing of birth @ IMPORTANT TERMS Spermiogenesis. The process of conversion of spermatid into a functional spermatozoan by the process of differentiation of specialization is called spermiogenesis or spermioteiosis. ae eee | ay roms | which provide nourishment to the differentiating spermatozoa. Sperms's head is kept Y POINTS ‘embedded in Sertoli ces for this puropse. MEMORY POINTS External fertilization, Fusion of male and female gametes takes place outside the body * Cow and buffalo are continu- of female animal ously breeding animals Internal fertilization, Fusion of male and female gametes takes place inside the body ” OV or eggisthe largest ell f of the body. of female animal. * Menarch. The onset of men- Amnion. A thin extraembryonic membrane forming a closed sac around the embryoin ” streal tycle ie wen oe birds, reptiles and mammals. termed menarche Amlots. A collective term for the reptiles, birds and mammalia, ll of which have an * Most birds possess only the amnion. left ovary and the left oviduct ‘Anamniote, Any animal of which the amnion is absent during embryonic development. fT conveying the ovum re- Amniotic fluid. A substance that fills the amnion to protect the embryo from shock and __!€28€d from the ovary, right som ovary and right oviduct being rudimentary vestiges. Amplocentesis A procedure during pregnancy by which the abdominal wall and foetal ® The left oviduct feads to a ‘membrane are punctured with a cannula to withdraw amniotic fluid, swollen tube called shell ‘Amphimixis. The union of nuclei of egg and sperm in sexual reproduction, Bland. When the egg reaches (Atlantols. uid filled, sa like extraembryonic membrane lying between the chorion et hrOUgh the oviduct, the and amnion of reptiles, birds and mammals. salts Ont to fone hens Allantochorion. The extraembryonic membrane formed by fusion of outer wall of shell ae allantois and with the primitive chorion. * Uterine milk. Nutritive en- Chemo-diferentiation, It is the chemical differentiation of cells of embryo during ¢°™ettal secretion. development, 758 MODERN'S abe OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEED.Cyto-differentiation. It is the structural differentiation of cells of embryo during development. Histo-differentiatlon. It is the formation of tissue and also called as histogenesis. Organ-differentiation, I is formation of organs from the embryo, Embryonle nutrition, The supply of required materials which are essential for the synthesis of more protoplasm and other compounds and for the production of energy during the development of the embryo is called embryonic nutrition. The materials required are ‘amino acids, minerals and oxygen, iapause. Sexual rest period in insects is called diapause. Endometrlum. Glandular mucous membrane lining of uterus. Genome. The set ofall different chromosomes found in each nucleus of given species. ‘Anaploid nucleus has one genome. Germinal vesicle. Nucleus of animal oocyte during the period of cytoplasmic growth. Gestation period. Length of time from conception to binh in viviparous animals. Lactation. Production of milk, Monoecious.(Bisexual or hermaphrodite) Mallerian Duct. Oviduct of female gnathostome vertebrate. Neoteny. Persistence of the form of a larva or any other stage (larva becomes sexually matured.) (c.g Axolot! Larva of Salamander in Amphibians Nidicolous birds. Those which hatch undeveloped Nymph. Young states of exopterygote insect. Oxytocin. Hormone secreted by posterior lobe of pituitary gland which causes labour pains (contraction of uterine muscles.). Secondary sexual characters. A characteristic of animals which differ between the two sexes. Seminal vesicles. Organs which store sperms in male (¢). Spermatheca. Organs which store sperms in female (2). Syngamy. Union of gametes is termed syngamy. Testosterone. A principal male hormone. Urethra. Duct leading from urinary bladder of mammals to exterior. Uterus masculinus. A sac-like structure dorsal to the bladder in male mammals. Vitelline membrane. Primary egg membrane secreted by egg. ‘Yolk plug. A mass of macromeres which closes the blastopore in the developing embryo ‘of some animals (frog), During further development after three months, there occur growth and a few minor structural modification. Extra-embryonic membranes include yolk sac, amnion, chorion and allantois. Yolk sac is also found in some anamniotes like certain fishes (e.g. Scotiodon), bony fishes and a few amphibians (e.g. Necturus), having polylecithal egg. * Free martins. A sexually under-developed female calf joined with a male. * Fate map. Diagram showing presumptive or prospective areas on the surface of blastula. It is done by using certain vital stains like neutral red, Nile blue sulphate, Bismarck brown, etc. It was first prepared by W.Vogt (1929). Amnion, chorion and allantois are formed only in amniote embryo as their develop- ‘Ment occurs on land either inside egg or in the uterus of mother. Thses are not formed in ‘namniotes as their development occurs in water so there is no problem of desication, “pply of oxygen and removal of wastes. is innermost embryonic membrane and never participates in placenta formation. [ Rey ports | © Miscarriage or Abortion Loss of embryo due to break down of endometrium due to lowering of progesterone cretion from corpus luteum # Males have high BMR due to greater activity Vitellogenesis. Synthesis of yolk in primary oocyte during prophase I © The side of ovum which ex trudes polar bodies is known 4s animal pole and opposite side as vegetal pole # Ina woman's fertility period (0f 32 years, about 13 eggs ma- ture each year and only about 416 eggs have chance to reach maturity. * Ovulation in human female takes place on 14th day of menstrual cycle which is 28 + 2day cycle. * Ovulation. Release of ovum during menstrual cycle is due to large concentration of LH on 14th day of menstrual cycle. [ Ry ports | © Menstrual bleeding is caused due to the reduction in con- centration of both estrogen and progesterone and spe- cially progesterone ‘© During first trimester of preg- nancy, corpus luteum secretes progesterone hormone which maintains pregnancy. * Chorionic gonadotropin is se- creted from placenta which is formed during pregnancy only. © At the time of parturition (Child birth), the hormone se- ‘reted is relaxin, which relaxes the pubic ligaments and helps in child birth. ‘© The ovaries contain 2 million or more primary oocytes 6 months before birth about a i million at the time of birth and. fs Chorion is outermost embryonic membrane and always participates in placenta only 400,000 remain by the formation, time of puberty. HAAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) 51called polarity. In Polarity. The existance of a definite axis in the egg and the embry® i “ Sk. the eng, polarity is indicated by the poston ofthe nveleus andthe YOK cate Inducers (Organizers), The cells that induce or control the developr neighbouring cells in an embryo are called inducers or organizers. Inductors. These are the chemi adjacent cells ‘Twins. When 2 or more babies are born in multiple births, Js which the inducers release to gui ide the fate of the then these are called twins. or or non ‘These may be identical twins (or monozygotic twins) or fraternal or dizygotic identical twins), ese are Siamese twins. Conjoined twins joined at the hip, chest, beck face etc. These jc. ‘surgically separated (first time in Siam) and are always monozy' Ses In oogenesis of frog, one oogonium forms one ovum and only to polar beds 7 Jn mammals, fertilization membranes not formed but the enzymes released afer OS formation of zona pellucida neutralize sperm receptors so that no additional sperm bind to this. ( facus © Colostrum. The fluid released from the nipples a few days after parturition. It is rich in protein globulin and low in ft. It transfers antibodies from mother to baby. © Microgamete. (sperm) small sized, haploid, motile ‘gamete which is deficient in stored nutrients is termed microgamete. © Macrogamete. (Ovum or female gamete). It is large Corpus luteum. The ruptured Graafian follicle after ovulation is called corpus luteum and secrete progesterone hormone into blood. Spermatic cord. It is an elastic cord which passes through inguinal canal and is attached with testis. Gubernaculum. is a fibromuscular tissue which binds testis with scrotal sac. sized, non-motile, haploid, laden with nutiensis called -«® Sertoli cells = Nurse cells = subtesticular cells. ‘macrogamete. © Graafian follicle. discovered by Regnier de graff. * Weogamy. Fusion of similar gametes is called isogamy. © Antrum. fluid filled space in graafian follicle e.g Monocystis. © Mesometriun. © Anisogamy. The fusion of gametes which are different {n form, size and behaviour is termed anisogamy, such gametes are termed heterogametes. e.g. frog, buman ‘© Oestrous Cycle. It consists of a few days of oestrous (heat) followed by a few days of anoestrous. There is ‘no bleeding and endometrium is reabsorbed, ‘© Semen. It is a fluid which is usually ejaculated only after the penis has been stimulated during sexual excitement. It contains sperms (about 200-400 million Per 3 ml), secretions of various reproductive glands, fibrinogen, thromboplastin and calcium citrate, 758 Fold of peritoneum lining which encloses uterus and vagina Mesovarium. Fold of peritoneal membrane which surrounds ovary in frog Mesosalpinx. Fold of peritoneal membrane which ‘surrounds fallopian tube, Mesorchium. Fold of peritoneal membrane which surround testes in frog, Jn male frog nuptial Pads are found at metacarpals of Ist digit of foreli wo mb. These are also known a — MODERNS abe OF OBJECTIVE BIOLOGY (NEED‘Select the correct answer 1. Ovary is an organ of : (A) male reproductive system (B) female reproductive system (C)imale excretory system (D) Female excretory system, 2. Oviducal funnel in frog is situated near the; (A)base of ovary (B) base of lung (C)oesophagus __(D) top of the ovary. 3, Ripe ova are shed by ovaries into : (A) Oviducal funnel (B) Coelom (©) Oviduct (D) Collecting tubules of kidney. 4, Proliferative phase lasts for » sofkidney, (A)2 days (B) 10-12 days (028 days @)only one week. 5, Secretory phase is of : (A)1 week duration (B) 12-14 days" duration (C)15-20 days’ duration (D)28 days’ duration, 6, From each testis of frog arise about a dozen, small, delicate tubules called : (A) vasa deferentia (B) vasa efferentia (©) ureters (D) Bidder’s canal 17. Corpus adiposum refers to : (A) phase of oogenesis (B) fat layer of skin (reserve fat (D) fat portions of testis. 8. Bidder's canal is found in : (A)liver (B) kidney (C)gall bladder (D) spleen 9. Gametes are produced by the process of gametogenesis in cells called : (A) germinal epithelial cells (B) germinal epidermal cells (C) germinal ectodermal cells (D) germinal endodermal cells. 10. Germ cells or gametes of all vertebrates are called : (A) ovules and sperms (B) ova and spermatozoa (©) ova and pollen (D)None of these. 11. In the testis, primary germinal cells undergo mitotic divisions to produce : (A) spermatozoa (B) primary spermatocyte (C) spermatogonia (D) secondary spermatocyte. . 2. In the process of gametogenesis in the testes, meiotic division takes place in the : (A) primary spermatocyte () secondary spermatocyte (©) spermatogonium (primary germ cell. HRMAN REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM) 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 19. a. 24, mos | ( Each testis is packed with (A) sperms (B) seminiferous tubules (C) spermatogonia ‘The Bidder's canal in frog helps to pass on (Ayova (B) sperms (bile (D) saliva Cells of Leydig are found in (A) ovary (B) testis (C) prostate )liver. (Monipat 1995) In a transverse section, frog’s tests differ from that of hhuman’s testis in : (A) absence of Sertoli cells (B) position of heads of spermatids (C) seminiferous tubules (D) All the above. In which part of female reproductive system of frog, eggs are stored temporary before spawning ? (A) Oviduet (B) Ureter (©) Uterus (D) Ovisac, In frog, the spermatozoa pass through which duct ? (A) Mallerian duct (B) Vas deferens (©) Wolffian duct (D) Vasa efferentia. ‘The oviduct in frog is actually : (A)Mullerian duct (B) Bidder’s canal (©) Wolffian duct (D) Vagina. The membrane which holds ovary in position is called: (A) mesorchium, (B) mesovarium (©) parietal peritoneum (D) mesosalpinx. In human glandular tissue of each breast is divided into how many mammary lobes (A)5-10 (B) 11-15 (©) 50-100 (D) 15-20. Sperms and ova develop from : (A) ectoderm (B) mesoderm (©) endoderm (D)ectoderm and mesoderm. The cells of germinal epithelium in the gonads are of the following types : (A) columnar (B) cuboidal (© squamous (D) stratified. Spermatogonia undergo a growth phase to become (A) spermatozoa (B) spermatids (©) primary spermatocyte (D) secodary spermatocyte, The gelatin coat of frog’s egg keeps it : (A)cool (B) moist (©) warm (D) safe and provides buoyancy. 759