CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

GCODRI (0507)​
BS Psych - 1J | FINALS - 2ND SEMESTER | @lirionicoleee
○​ High blood pressure from stress or panic
FUNCTIONS OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
attacks can impair mental clarity and
Transport of Substances: emotional reactions.
●​ Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues ●​ Cardiovascular Functions
●​ Distributes hormones to target organs ○​ Pumps blood, delivers oxygen/nutrients to
●​ Removes carbon dioxide & metabolic waste. cells, and removes waste like carbon
Gas Exchange: dioxide.
●​ Facilitates oxygen and carbon dioxide ○​ Helps regulate the acid-base balance.
exchange via diffusion. ●​ Impact of Chronic Stress
●​ Oxygen is delivered to cells, and carbon ○​ Chronic stress releases hormones like
dioxide is expelled through exhalation. cortisol, norepinephrine, and epinephrine,
Thermoregulation: increasing blood pressure and pulse rate.
●​ Regulates body temperature by ○​ This constant fight-or-flight response can
vasoconstriction (retains heat) and lead to anxiety, depression, and emotional
vasodilation (releases heat). instability.
●​ Linked to the integumentary system. ○​ Sleep disturbances from chronic stress
Acid-Base Balance: affect emotional regulation and daily
●​ Maintains balance with the respiratory system. functioning.
○​ Respiratory acidosis: Caused by excess ●​ Bi-Directional Relationship Between
carbon dioxide (e.g., smoke inhalation), Cardiovascular Health and Psychology
impairing gas exchange, cardiac function ○​ Cardiovascular health influences mental
& respiratory function. health and vice versa.
○​ Respiratory alkalosis: Caused by excess ○​ Understanding this relationship enables
oxygen (e.g., hyperventilation), disrupting more holistic treatment approaches, such
acid-base balance and lung function. as combining therapies like CBT and
Water Content Regulation: relaxation techniques.
●​ Works with the lymphatic system to maintain ●​ Effects of Poor Heart Health
fluid balance through ○​ Poor cardiovascular health can lead to
cardiovascular-lymphatic interaction. cognitive impairments and emotional
Protection and Immune Function: dysregulation.
●​ Protects through white blood cells (infection ○​ Stress reduction techniques improve both
defense), platelets (clotting), and antibodies psychological well-being and
(immune defense). cardiovascular health.
IMPORTANCE OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR ●​ Multidisciplinary Approach in Healthcare
SYSTEM ○​ A collaborative approach between
psychologists, cardiologists, and other
●​ Cardiovascular System and Mental Health
healthcare professionals is key to
○​ The cardiovascular system is crucial for
addressing both physical and emotional
both physical and mental health.
aspects of care.
○​ The brain relies on the heart, meaning
○​ This team approach ensures
cardiovascular health can affect mental
comprehensive patient treatment,
well-being, emotional stability, and stress
addressing both physical pain and
management.
emotional distress.
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

HEART Hormonal and Neurotransmitter Influence:

●​ The heart adjusts its rate and contraction force
CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE in response to hormones like adrenaline.

ANATOMY: WALLS OF HEART

Heart Muscle Composition:

●​ The heart consists mainly of cardiac muscle,
Epicardium (Visceral Pericardium):
which is involuntary and contracts automatically.
●​ Thin, smooth membrane covering the heart’s
Cardiac Muscle Features:
outer surface. May contain fat, blood vessels,
●​ Intercalated discs enable quick electrical
and nerves.
impulse transmission and strong cell adhesion
●​ Function: Protects the heart and reduces
during contraction.
friction.
Muscle Fiber Composition:
Myocardium:
●​ Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle has actin
●​ The thickest, muscular layer made of cardiac
and myosin filaments for contraction.
muscle.
Involuntary Control:
●​ Function: Responsible for heart contractions,
●​ The heart operates without conscious control,
pumping blood, and generating force. Contains
regulated by the autonomic nervous system.
intercalated discs for coordinated contractions.
Myogenic Activity:
Endocardium:
●​ The heart has an intrinsic conduction system,
●​ Thin, smooth membrane lining the heart
including the SA and AV nodes, to regulate
chambers, made of endothelial cells.
rhythm without external stimuli.
●​ Function: Prevents blood clots and ensures
Self-Regulation:
smooth blood flow.
●​ The SA node acts as the pacemaker, generating
Pericardium (Heart Covering):
impulses to regulate the heartbeat
●​ Fibrous Pericardium (Outer): Prevents heart
independently.
over-expansion.
Muscle Cell Structure:
●​ Serous Pericardium (Inner): Reduces friction
●​ Cardiac muscle cells are branched and
between the heart and surrounding structures.
interconnected, allowing rapid signal
Septum:
transmission and coordinated contractions.
●​ Interatrial Septum: Separates left and right
Energy and Fatigue Resistance:
atria.
●​ Cardiac muscle contains many mitochondria,
●​ Interventricular Septum: Separates left and
providing energy resistance and preventing
right ventricles.
fatigue.
Oxygen and Nutrient Supply:
●​ The heart needs a constant supply of oxygen
and nutrients to function.
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
●​ Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve: Between the left atrium
ANATOMY: CHAMBERS AND MAJOR BLOOD
and ventricle, has two cusps for higher pressure.
VESSELS
Both prevent backflow into the atria.
Four Major Chambers of the Heart:
●​ Chordae Tendineae: Tendon-like fibers that
●​ Two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles
anchor AV valves to papillary muscles,
(lower chambers).
preventing prolapse during contraction.
●​ Right and left chambers on each side.
Semilunar Valves:
Right Atrium:
●​ Pulmonary Valve: Between right ventricle and
●​ Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via
pulmonary artery, prevents backflow to the right
the superior and inferior vena cava.
ventricle.
●​ Sends blood through the tricuspid valve to the
●​ Aortic Valve: Between left ventricle and aorta,
right ventricle.
prevents backflow to the left ventricle.
●​ Tricuspid Valve: Prevents backflow into the right
HEART CONTRACTION: INTRINSIC
atrium.
CONDUCTION SYSTEM
Right Ventricle:
●​ Pumps deoxygenated blood through the
pulmonary valve to the pulmonary artery, which
carries it to the lungs for oxygenation.
●​ Pulmonary Valve: Prevents backflow into the
right ventricle.
Oxygenated Blood Flow:
●​ Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs via
pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
●​ Flows through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the
left ventricle.
Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heart:
Left Ventricle:
●​ The heart has a myogenic conduction system
●​ Pumps oxygenated blood through the aortic
that generates and propagates electrical
valve into the aorta.
impulses, regulating its rhythmic contractions
●​ Aorta distributes oxygenated blood to the body.
without needing nervous system input.
Major Blood Vessels:
Main Components:
●​ Superior/Inferior Vena Cava: Carry
●​ SA Node (Sinoatrial Node):
deoxygenated blood from the body to the right
○​ Located in the right atrium, it serves as the
atrium.
pacemaker, generating impulses at 60-100
●​ Pulmonary Artery: Carries deoxygenated blood
beats per minute. This causes atrial
from the right ventricle to the lungs.
contraction to push blood into the ventricles.
●​ Pulmonary Veins: Carry oxygenated blood from
●​ AV Node (Atrioventricular Node):
the lungs to the left atrium.
○​ Positioned at the atrial-ventricular junction,
●​ Aorta: Carries oxygenated blood from the left
it delays the impulse by 0.1 second, allowing
ventricle to the body.
the ventricles to fill with blood. This helps fill
ANATOMY: VALVES
25-35% of the ventricles after 65-75% of
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves: filling occurs passively.
●​ Tricuspid Valve: Between the right atrium and ●​ Bundle of His:
ventricle, has three cusps. ○​ Located in the interventricular septum, it
carries impulses from the AV node toward
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
the ventricles, branching into the right and Key Differences:
left bundle branches to direct impulses ●​ Myogenic hearts do not need nerve signals to
downward to the heart's apex. start contractions, while neurogenic hearts do.
●​ Purkinje Fibers: ●​ Myogenic hearts can continue beating outside
○​ Found at the heart's apex, these fibers the body; neurogenic hearts cannot.
spread through the ventricular walls,
HEART CONTRACTION: CARDIAC CYCLE
triggering a strong, coordinated ventricular
contraction.
Summary:
●​ The intrinsic conduction system regulates heart
rhythm and ensures coordinated contraction and
blood flow, independent of the nervous system.

MYOGENIC AND NEUROGENIC

Overview of Cardiac Cycle: The cardiac cycle has

three phases:
1.​ Atrial Systole: Atria contract, pushing blood into
relaxed ventricles.
2.​ Ventricular Systole: Ventricles contract, pumping
blood into the arteries.
3.​ Diastole: Heart relaxes to refill with blood.
Systole vs. Diastole:
●​ Systole: Heart muscle contraction.
Myogenic Heart:
●​ Diastole: Heart muscle relaxation.
●​ Contracts independently of the nervous system.
Atrial Systole:
●​ Initiates contractions via electrical impulses
●​ Both atria contract, pushing blood into
from the SA node in humans.
ventricles.
●​ Found in humans, mammals, birds, reptiles,
●​ AV valves open, semilunar valves closed.
amphibians, and fish.
●​ SA node initiates impulse (P wave on ECG).
●​ Autonomic nervous system can modify the heart
Closure of AV Valves:
rate but does not start contractions.
●​ After atrial contraction, AV valves close,
●​ Continues beating if removed from the body
producing the "LUB" sound.
(self-regulated).
●​ Ventricular pressure rises, leading to ventricular
●​ Involuntary control: Influenced by the
systole.
autonomic nervous system (e.g., sympathetic for
Ventricular Systole:
stress, parasympathetic for relaxation).
●​ Ventricles contract, increasing pressure.
Neurogenic Heart:
●​ When ventricular pressure exceeds artery
●​ Requires nerve signals to start contractions.
pressure, semilunar valves open, and blood is
●​ Controlled by neural ganglia (nerve clusters).
ejected into the aorta and pulmonary artery.
●​ Found in lower animals (e.g., crustaceans).
●​ Stops beating if nerve supply is cut off.
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Diastole (Isovolumetric Relaxation): ●​ Typical Value: ~70 mL per beat in a healthy
●​ After ventricular contraction, pressure drops, adult.
semilunar valves close, producing the "DUB" ●​ Example: If HR = 75 bpm and SV = 70 mL, CO =
sound. 75 × 70 = 5250 mL/min (5.25 L/min).
Opening of AV Valves: Factors Affecting CO:
●​ When ventricular pressure falls below atrial ●​ Heart Rate:
pressure, AV valves open, and blood flows into ○​ Influenced by the
ventricles. sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous
Duration of One Cardiac Cycle: system and factors like:
●​ Lasts about 0.8 seconds at 75 beats per minute ■​ Epinephrine, fever, exercise (increase
(normal range: 62-100 bpm). HR)
ECG Representation: ■​ Hypothermia (decreases HR)
●​ P wave: Atrial contraction. ●​ Stroke Volume:
●​ After AV valves close, ventricular contraction ○​ Affected by:
occurs. ■​ Preload: Blood volume before
●​ Aortic valve opening marks ventricular ejection, contraction (higher preload = higher
and its closing causes the DUB sound. SV)
●​ AV valves open again after ventricular relaxation ■​ Contractility: Force of contraction
to restart the cycle. (higher contractility = higher SV)
■​ Afterload: Resistance against pumping
(higher afterload = lower SV)

BLOOD CIRCULATION

PULMONARY AND SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

Blood Circulation Overview: There are two types of

circulation: pulmonary and systemic.
Pulmonary Circulation:
●​ Function: Transports deoxygenated blood from
the heart to the lungs for oxygenation.
●​ Pathway:
CARDIAC OUTPUT ○​ Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium
Cardiac Output (CO): via the vena cava.
●​ The amount of blood pumped by each ventricle ○​ Blood flows through the tricuspid valve into
per minute, crucial for tissue perfusion. the right ventricle.
●​ CO = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV). ○​ It passes through the pulmonary valve into
Heart Rate (HR): the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
●​ The number of heartbeats per minute. ○​ Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium
●​ Measurement: Count pulse (e.g., wrist, jugular) via the pulmonary veins.
for one minute. Useful for monitoring during Systemic Circulation:
activities like exercise with oximeters. ●​ Function: Delivers oxygen-rich blood to the body
Stroke Volume (SV): and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart.
●​ Definition: Blood volume pumped per ventricle ●​ Pathway:
contraction. ○​ Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium
from the lungs.
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
○​ It flows through the bicuspid valve into the ●​ Coronary Sinus: Returns deoxygenated blood to
left ventricle. the right atrium.
○​ Blood is pumped through the aortic valve Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): CAD occurs when
into the aorta, branching into arteries, plaque builds up in coronary arteries, reducing blood
arterioles, and capillaries. flow. This leads to:
○​ Capillaries exchange gases and nutrients, ●​ Angina: Chest pain.
returning deoxygenated blood through ●​ Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attack): Caused
veins to the vena cava. by complete blockage of blood flow.
Key Differences: BLOOD VESSELS
●​ Pulmonary: Carries deoxygenated blood, low
pressure.
●​ Systemic: Carries oxygenated blood, high
pressure.

CORONARY CIRCULATION

Coronary Circulation Overview:

●​ The coronary circulation supplies oxygen and
nutrients to the heart muscle (myocardium). The
heart needs continuous blood supply due to its
constant activity.
Oxygenated Blood Flow:
●​ Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle
through the aorta, which branches into the left
and right coronary arteries. These arteries
further divide into smaller arterioles and
capillaries, delivering oxygen to the
myocardium.
Types of Blood Vessels:
Deoxygenated Blood Return:
●​ Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the
●​ After oxygen use, deoxygenated blood returns
heart; thick walls, narrow lumen, no valves; high
through the cardiac veins into the coronary
blood pressure and velocity. The aorta is the
sinus, which directs it to the right atrium.
largest artery, branching into arterioles to
Key Coronary Arteries:
reduce pressure.
●​ Left Coronary Artery (LCA): Divides into:
●​ Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart;
○​ Left Anterior Descending (LAD) Artery:
thin walls, wide lumen, contain valves; low blood
Supplies the front of the heart.
pressure and slower velocity.
○​ Circumflex Artery: Supplies the left atrium
●​ Capillaries: Facilitate exchange of gases,
and ventricle.
nutrients, and waste; thinnest walls, no valves;
●​ Right Coronary Artery (RCA): Supplies the right
very low blood pressure and slow flow due to
atrium, right ventricle, and part of the left
their structure.
ventricle.
Blood Flow and Pressure:
Key Coronary Veins:
●​ Highest in arteries, lower in veins, and lowest
●​ Great Cardiac Vein
in capillaries. Blood moves from high pressure
●​ Middle Cardiac Vein
in arteries, to low pressure in capillaries, and
●​ Small Cardiac Vein
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
then to veins (higher pressure than Blood Volume:
capillaries). ●​ 7-8% of body weight
General Flow Path: ●​ Average volume:
●​ Arteries branch into arterioles, reducing ○​ 5-6 liters in males, 4-5 liters in females.
pressure. Capillaries enable exchanges, then HEART CONTRACTION, HEART RATE, PULSE,
blood flows into venules, increasing pressure BLOOD PRESSURE
before entering veins.

BLOOD HEART CONTRACTION

Conduction System of the Heart:

●​ SA Node: The heart’s natural pacemaker;
initiates atrial contraction.
●​ AV Node: Delays the impulse to allow ventricles
to fill, then triggers ventricular contraction.
●​ Bundle of His: Splits into right and left bundle
branches.
●​ Purkinje Fibers: Distribute the impulse to the
ventricles for coordinated contraction.

HEART RATE

Normal Heart Rate (HR):

●​ 60–100 bpm for adults
●​ 40–60 bpm for athletes
Blood Functions: Abnormal Heart Rates:
●​ Blood transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste, ●​ Tachycardia: HR > 100 bpm, indicates fast heart
protects through immune defense, and regulates rate.
blood volume and pH balance. ●​ Bradycardia: HR < 60 bpm (non-athletes),
Key Concept: indicates slow heart rate.
●​ Blood is the only liquid connective tissue in the Factors Influencing Heart Rate:
body. ●​ Increase in HR:
Components of Blood: ○​ Triggered by "fight or flight" response.
●​ Plasma: ○​ Hormones: Epinephrine, Norepinephrine,
○​ Yellowish liquid that transports nutrients, Thyroxine, Cortisol.
hormones, and wastes, and helps maintain ○​ These hormones increase heart rate and
blood volume and pH balance. contraction force.
●​ Red Blood Cells (RBCs) / Erythrocytes: ●​ Decrease in HR:
○​ Carry oxygen (via hemoglobin) and carbon ○​ Controlled by parasympathetic nervous
dioxide. system.
●​ White Blood Cells (WBCs) / Leukocytes: ○​ Acetylcholine slows the SA node, reducing
○​ Defend the body against infections and HR.
foreign invaders. Effect of Increased HR on Blood Volume:
●​ Platelets / Thrombocytes: ●​ High HR may prevent full ventricle filling before
○​ Small fragments that help form blood clots contraction, reducing stroke volume and blood
to prevent blood loss. output.
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Afterload:
STARLING’S LAW
●​ Resistance the left ventricle must overcome.
Definition:
●​ ↑ Afterload (due to high vascular resistance) → ↓
●​ Starling’s Law (Frank-Starling mechanism) states
CO
that the heart's contraction strength and stroke
Venous return:
volume increase with more blood filling the
●​ ↓ Venous return → ↓ Preload → ↓ CO
ventricles during diastole, up to a physiological
PULSE AND HEART RATE
limit.
Key Concepts: Pulse:
●​ Preload: Blood volume in the ventricles at the ●​ The rhythmic expansion and recoil of arteries
end of diastole (before contraction). More from heart contractions.
preload = stronger contraction. ●​ Pulse rate equals heart rate in healthy
●​ Stroke Volume (SV): Blood ejected per beat (≈70 individuals.
mL). Increased preload raises SV. ●​ Normal resting heart rate: 60-100 bpm.
●​ Cardiac Output (CO): Blood pumped per minute Common Pulse Sites:
(CO = SV × Heart Rate). Higher preload increases ●​ Radial artery: Wrist (most common for pulse
CO. check)
Physiological Application: ●​ Carotid artery: Neck (important in emergencies)
●​ Exercise: Increased venous return during ●​ Brachial artery: Inner elbow (used for blood
exercise raises preload, enhancing contraction pressure)
strength and cardiac output to meet bodily Factors Affecting Heart Rate:
demands. ●​ Increased heart rate (tachycardia): Exercise,
●​ Heart Failure: Excessive preload can stress, fever, dehydration
overstretch cardiac fibers, weakening ●​ Decreased heart rate (bradycardia): Rest, deep
contractions and reducing cardiac output. breathing (common in athletes)

CARDIAC OUTPUT REGULATION BLOOD PRESSURE

Cardiac output (CO) is influenced by: Definition:

●​ Heart rate (HR) ●​ Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by blood
●​ Stroke volume (SV) against artery walls, measured as systolic over
●​ Sympathetic nervous system diastolic pressure (e.g., 120/80 mmHg).
●​ Preload, afterload, and contractility Systolic Pressure:
Key Concepts: ●​ Pressure in arteries during heart contraction
●​ CO = SV × HR (ventricular systole).
●​ CO increases with: ●​ Normal range: 110–140 mmHg.
○​ ↑ HR Diastolic Pressure:
○​ ↑ SV (via ↑ preload or ↑ contractility) ●​ Pressure in arteries during heart relaxation
Preload: (ventricular diastole).
●​ Initial stretch of cardiac muscle fibers due to ●​ Normal range: 70–90 mmHg.
venous return. Factors Affecting Blood Pressure:
●​ ↑ Preload → ↑ CO (Frank-Starling's Law) ●​ Cardiac Output: Increased output = higher BP.
Contractility: ●​ Blood Volume: More volume = higher BP.
●​ ↑ Contractility (e.g., via sympathetic stimulation) ●​ Temperature:
→ ↑ CO ○​ Hot temperatures = lower BP (vasodilation).
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
○​ Cold temperatures = higher BP Stethoscope
(vasoconstriction). ●​ Purpose: Used to listen to internal body sounds.
Pressure Gradient in the Circulatory System: ●​ Uses:
●​ Arteries: Highest BP, directly from the heart. ○​ Heart sounds: Detect murmurs or valve
●​ Arterioles: Moderate BP, transition between defects.
high-pressure arteries and low-pressure ○​ Lung sounds: Identify wheezing or fluid
capillaries. buildup.
●​ Capillaries: Low BP, allows for nutrient and gas ○​ Blood flow: Hear blood moving through
exchange. arteries.
●​ Veins and Venules: Lowest BP in the circulatory Sphygmomanometer (Blood Pressure Monitor)
system. ●​ Purpose: Measures blood pressure (BP).
Additional Notes: ●​ Components:
●​ BP varies in different blood vessels, with ○​ Inflatable cuff: Wrapped around the upper
pulsatile changes primarily found in arteries. arm.
○​ Manometer: Gauge that displays BP
readings.
○​ Stethoscope: Used to listen for Korotkoff
sounds during BP measurement.
●​ Types:
○​ Manual sphygmomanometer: Requires a
stethoscope and is used in clinical settings.
○​ Alternative method: Radial artery
palpation, but cannot measure diastolic
pressure accurately without a stethoscope.

BLOOD PRESSURE

FACTORS AFFECTING BLOOD PRESSUE

Neural Regulation (Autonomic Nervous System)

TOOLS ASSESSING HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS ●​ Sympathetic Nervous System: Increases BP,
causes vasoconstriction, raises heart rate.
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
●​ Parasympathetic Nervous System: Decreases
●​ Purpose: Records the electrical signals of the
BP, causes vasodilation, lowers heart rate.
heart.
Renal (Kidney) Factors
●​ Components:
●​ Dehydration: Activates RAAS, raising BP and
○​ Leads: Wires attached to the body to
retaining sodium and water to increase blood
capture electrical activity.
volume.
●​ ECG Waveform:
●​ Urine Output: Increased output lowers BP by
○​ P wave: Atrial depolarization.
removing excess fluid.
○​ QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization.
Temperature
○​ T wave: Ventricular repolarization.
●​ Hot Environment: Causes vasodilation, lowering
○​ PR interval: Time from atrial to ventricular
BP.
depolarization.
●​ Cold Environment: Causes vasoconstriction,
○​ ST segment: Time between ventricular
raising BP.
depolarization and repolarization.
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Hormones and Substances MIND AND HEART CONNECTION
●​ Increase BP: Epinephrine, aldosterone,
Link Between Heart Disease and Mental Health:
vasopressin, caffeine.
●​ The CDC identifies a strong connection between
●​ Decrease BP: Nitric oxide, alcohol (temporary
mental health and heart health.
effect).
●​ Chronic stress increases cortisol and blood
Diet
pressure, raising heart disease risk.
●​ Unhealthy Diet: High in fats and cholesterol,
●​ Depression and anxiety affect heart rate,
increases BP and can cause atherosclerosis.
blood pressure, and immune function.
●​ Healthy Diet: Includes fruits, vegetables, and
●​ Poor sleep disrupts cortisol levels, leading to
fiber, helping to maintain healthy BP.
higher blood pressure.
VARIATIONS IN BLOOD PRESSURE ●​ Unhealthy coping habits (e.g., smoking,
Normal Blood Pressure: alcohol, overeating) damage blood vessels and
●​ 120/80 mmHg (systolic/diastolic). increase blood pressure.
Hypotension (Low Blood Pressure): Mental Health and Heart Disease:
●​ Less than 90/60 mmHg. ●​ Depression increases the likelihood of
●​ Causes: Dehydration, blood loss, heart failure, hypertension and heart disease.
infection. ●​ Heart attack patients with depression have
Hypertension (High Blood Pressure): slower recovery due to psychological impact.
●​ More than 140/90 mmHg. ●​ Stress and anxiety can trigger arrhythmias,
●​ Causes: Genetics, obesity, stress, smoking, raising the risk of sudden cardiac events.
alcohol, fatty foods, aneurysm, heart disease. Recommendations for Management:
●​ Practice mindfulness and therapy to manage
PHYSIOLOGY OF CORTISOL IN INCREASING
stress.
BLOOD PRESSURE
●​ Focus on sleep hygiene for better sleep quality.
Stress Types: Physical or psychological.
●​ Avoid medication that interferes with treating
Initiating Signal: Stress activates the hypothalamus.
physical conditions.
Hormonal Cascade:
●​ Promote regular exercise, healthy diet, and a
●​ Hypothalamus releases corticotropin- releasing
balanced lifestyle.
hormone (CRH) → anterior pituitary releases
CDC's Recommendations for Individuals:
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) → adrenal
●​ Recognize symptoms of both mental health and
cortex releases cortisol.
heart disease.
Cortisol Effects on Blood Pressure:
●​ Consult healthcare professionals about
●​ ↑ Sensitivity to Catecholamines (Epi/Norepi) → ↑
potential heart issues.
Vasoconstriction → ↑ TPR → ↑ BP
●​ Understand your family history and genetic
●​ ↑ Sodium & Water Retention (via kidney) → ↑
risks.
Blood Volume → ↑ BP
●​ Maintain a healthy lifestyle.
●​ ↓ Nitric Oxide (NO) Production → ↓ Vasodilation
→ ↑ Vascular Tone → ↑ BP
●​ ↑ RAAS Activation (↑ Angiotensin II &
Aldosterone) → ↑ Na⁺ Retention &
Vasoconstriction → ↑ BP
●​ ↑ Cardiac Output (via ↑ Blood Volume & ↑
Vascular Resistance) → ↑ BP