1.

Types of Motion
Motion refers to the change in the position of an object over time.
1. Linear Motion: Movement along a straight or curved path.
o Rectilinear Motion: Straight-line motion (e.g., sliding a block).
o Curvilinear Motion: Motion along a curved path (e.g., projectile motion).
2. Rotational Motion: Movement around a fixed axis (e.g., rotating wheels).
3. Oscillatory Motion: Back-and-forth movement in a regular pattern (e.g., pendulum).
4. Reciprocal Motion: Alternating linear motion, typically seen in pistons.

2. Degree of Freedom (DOF) and Constraints

1. Degree of Freedom (DOF): The number of independent motions allowed for a body or
mechanism.
o A rigid body in 3D space has 6 DOF: 3 translational and 3 rotational.
o Constraints reduce DOF by restricting motion.
2. Constraints: Conditions or restrictions that limit the motion of a mechanism.
o Holonomic Constraints: Position-dependent restrictions (e.g., a slider moving
along a fixed path).
o Non-Holonomic Constraints: Velocity-dependent restrictions (e.g., rolling
without slipping).

3. Kinematic Chains - Links, Nodes, and Joints

1. Links: Rigid bodies that form the components of a mechanism (e.g., rods, beams).
o Binary Link: Connects two joints.
o Ternary Link: Connects three joints.
o Quaternary Link: Connects four joints.
2. Nodes: Points where links are connected.
3. Joints: Connections allowing relative motion between links.
o Revolute Joint: Allows rotation (pin joint).
o Prismatic Joint: Allows sliding motion.
o Higher Pair: Contact involves a curve or line (e.g., cam-follower).

4. The Grashof Condition

Grashof's law determines the mobility of a 4-bar mechanism.
• Condition: S+L≤P+QS + L \leq P + Q, where:
 o SS: Length of the shortest link.
o LL: Length of the longest link.
o P,QP, Q: Lengths of the other two links.
• If satisfied, at least one link completes a full rotation (crank).

5. Cam and Follower

1. Cam: A rotating or sliding component that imparts motion to a follower.
2. Follower: The element that moves due to the cam profile.
o Types of Followers:
▪ Based on motion: Translating, oscillating.
▪ Based on contact: Roller, knife-edge, flat.
o Applications: Valve operations in engines, textile machinery.

6. Gears and Gear Trains

1. Gears: Toothed wheels that transmit motion and torque between shafts.
o Types: Spur, helical, bevel, worm, rack, and pinion.
o Gear Ratio: Determines speed and torque transfer.
2. Gear Trains: Assemblies of multiple gears.
o Simple Gear Train: Gears in a single line.
o Compound Gear Train: Multiple gears on a single shaft.
o Planetary Gear Train: Gears revolve around a central gear.

7. Ratchet and Pawl

• Ratchet: A toothed wheel that allows motion in one direction only.
• Pawl: A lever or spring-loaded arm that engages with the ratchet to prevent reverse
motion.
• Applications: Clocks, hoists, and winches.

8. Belt Drive
• Flexible drive system using belts and pulleys to transfer power.
• Types:
o Flat belt, V-belt, Timing belt.
• Advantages: Cost-effective, shock-absorption.
• Disadvantages: Slippage, limited torque.
9. Chain Drive
• Uses interlinked chains and sprockets to transfer power without slipping.
• Advantages: High torque capacity, no slippage.
• Disadvantages: Higher noise, requires lubrication.

10. Bearings
1. Hydrodynamic Bearings: Support a load using a thin film of lubricating fluid generated by
relative motion.
o Advantages: Low friction at high speeds.
o Applications: Turbines, compressors.
2. Hydrostatic Bearings: Lubricating fluid is supplied under pressure externally to support a
load.
o Advantages: Handles heavy loads at low speeds.
o Applications: Precision machinery, heavy-duty equipment.

1. Sensors and Transducers

1. Sensors: Devices that detect physical phenomena (temperature, pressure, motion, etc.) and
convert them into readable signals.
o Examples: Thermocouples, light sensors.
2. Transducers: Devices that convert energy from one form to another (mechanical to electrical,
thermal to electrical, etc.).
o A sensor can be considered a type of transducer.

2. Active Sensors and Passive Sensors

1. Active Sensors: Require an external power source to operate.
o Examples: Thermocouples, piezoelectric sensors.
2. Passive Sensors: Do not require external power; they rely on the measured phenomenon to
produce an output.
o Examples: Resistive temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors.

3. Types of Sensors and Transducers

1. Based on Working Principle:
o Resistive (e.g., potentiometers).
 o Capacitive (e.g., capacitive touch sensors).
o Inductive (e.g., inductive proximity sensors).
2. Based on Measured Parameter:
o Temperature (e.g., thermocouples).
o Motion (e.g., PIR sensors).
o Position (e.g., Hall effect sensors).

4. Proximity Sensors
Detect the presence of nearby objects without physical contact.
1. Capacitive Proximity Sensors:
o Work on changes in capacitance when an object approaches the sensor.
o Detect metals and non-metals (glass, plastic).
o Applications: Liquid level detection, material handling systems.
2. Inductive Proximity Sensors:
o Operate based on the change in inductance caused by metallic objects.
o Suitable for detecting only metals.
o Applications: Manufacturing systems, robotics.
3. Reed Proximity Sensors:
o Use a reed switch that closes in the presence of a magnetic field.
o Applications: Security systems, door sensors.

5. Motion Sensors
Detect motion or movement of objects.
1. PIR (Passive Infrared) Motion Sensors:
o Detect infrared radiation emitted by moving objects (humans, animals).
o Passive as they do not emit energy.
o Applications: Security systems, lighting controls.
2. Accelerometer:
o Measures acceleration in one or more axes.
o Used in smartphones, vehicles, and robotics for motion sensing.
3. Gyroscope:
o Measures angular velocity or orientation.
o Applications: Navigation systems, drones, gaming controllers.
6. Position Sensors
Measure the position of an object.
1. Hall Effect Sensors:
o Work based on the Hall effect (voltage produced across a conductor in a magnetic field).
o Applications: RPM measurement, position sensing in motors.
2. Resistive Position Sensors (Potentiometers):
o Measure position using the resistance variation along a sliding contact.
o Applications: Volume controls, throttle position sensors.

7. Ultrasonic Sensors
• Emit ultrasonic waves and measure the time taken for the reflected waves to return.
• Applications: Distance measurement, object detection, parking systems.

8. Linear Displacement Sensors (LVDT)

• LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer): Measures linear displacement using mutual
inductance.
o Consists of a primary coil, two secondary coils, and a movable core.
o Outputs voltage proportional to displacement.
o Applications: Hydraulic systems, industrial automation, robotics.

1. Fluid Power Systems

Fluid power systems use fluids (liquid or gas) to transmit energy for performing work.
1. Hydraulic Systems: Utilize liquids (e.g., oil) for high force applications.
2. Pneumatic Systems: Utilize compressed air or gases for light, fast operations.
Advantages: High power density, precise control, and flexibility.
Applications: Industrial machinery, automation, transportation.

2. Hydraulic Systems
• Use pressurized liquids to transmit power.
Components:
1. Hydraulic pump.
2. Control valves (direction, pressure, and flow control).
3. Hydraulic actuators (cylinders and motors).
 4. Reservoir and fluid.

3. Hydraulic Pumps Classification

Hydraulic pumps convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
1. Non-Positive Displacement Pumps:
o Output flow varies with system pressure.
o Example: Centrifugal pumps.
2. Positive Displacement Pumps:
o Deliver a constant flow regardless of pressure.
o Examples: Gear pumps, vane pumps, piston pumps.

4. Non-Positive Displacement Pump - Centrifugal Pump Working

• Converts mechanical energy into kinetic energy of fluid.
• Working:
1. Fluid enters the impeller at the center (eye).
2. Impeller rotates, imparting kinetic energy.
3. Fluid exits at high velocity and pressure.
Applications: Water supply, irrigation, chemical transfer.

5. Positive Displacement Pump - Gear Pump Working

• Uses meshing gears to transfer fluids.
• Working:
1. Fluid enters through the inlet and gets trapped between gear teeth.
2. Gears rotate, carrying the fluid to the outlet.
3. Fluid is discharged under pressure.
Applications: Lubrication systems, hydraulic circuits.

6. Pneumatic Systems
• Use compressed air to transmit power.
Components:
1. Compressor.
2. Air reservoir.
3. FRL unit (Filter, Regulator, Lubricator).
4. Actuators (cylinders).
5. Valves (direction, flow, pressure).
7. Classification of Compressors
Compressors are devices used to compress air or gas.
1. Positive Displacement Compressors: Compress by trapping air in a chamber and reducing its
volume.
o Example: Single-cylinder reciprocating compressor.
2. Dynamic Compressors: Compress by imparting velocity to air.
o Example: Centrifugal compressor.

8. Positive Displacement Compressor - Single Cylinder Compressor

• Air is compressed by a piston moving inside a cylinder.
Working:
1. Suction Stroke: Piston moves down, drawing air into the cylinder.
2. Compression Stroke: Piston moves up, compressing air.
3. Compressed air is discharged into the storage tank.
Applications: Workshops, spray painting.

9. Dynamic Compressor - Centrifugal Compressor

• Air is accelerated through a rotating impeller and then decelerated in a diffuser to increase
pressure.
Working:
1. Air enters axially into the impeller.
2. Kinetic energy is imparted by the impeller.
3. Pressure increases as air passes through the diffuser.
Applications: HVAC systems, turbochargers.

10. FRL Unit

1. Filter: Removes dust, dirt, and moisture from compressed air.
2. Regulator: Maintains consistent pressure for pneumatic tools and actuators.
3. Lubricator: Adds a fine mist of oil to the compressed air for lubrication.
Applications: Ensures longevity and smooth operation of pneumatic components.

11. Pneumatic Cylinders

• Actuators that convert compressed air into linear or rotary motion.
1. Single-Acting Cylinder: Air pressure extends the piston, while a spring retracts it.
 2. Double-Acting Cylinder: Air pressure is used for both extension and retraction.
Applications: Conveyor systems, robotics.

12. Direction Control Valves (DCVs)

• Control the direction of airflow in pneumatic systems.
Types:
1. 2/2 DCV: Two ports, two positions (e.g., on/off valve).
2. 3/2 DCV: Three ports, two positions (e.g., single-acting cylinder control).
3. 5/2 DCV: Five ports, two positions (e.g., double-acting cylinder control).
Applications: Automation and control systems.

1. PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)

• A PLC is an industrial digital computer designed to control manufacturing processes, such as
assembly lines or robotic devices.
• Key Features:
1. Rugged and designed for industrial environments.
2. Capable of handling multiple I/O signals.
3. Flexible and reprogrammable for different applications.
4. Reliable with real-time control capabilities.
Applications:
• Automation of machinery, process control in industries, building automation, etc.

2. Architecture of a PLC
1. Power Supply: Provides power to the PLC components.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
o The brain of the PLC.
o Executes the control program and handles data processing.
3. Memory:
o Stores the program, data, and system information.
o Types: RAM, ROM, and EEPROM.
4. Input/Output (I/O) Modules:
o Interfaces for connecting external devices (sensors, actuators).
o Types: Digital and analog I/O modules.
5. Communication Modules: For networking and communication with other devices or systems.
6. Programming Device: Used to create, modify, and upload the PLC program.
3. Programming Languages Used in PLC
Defined by IEC 61131-3 Standard, the primary PLC programming languages are:
1. Ladder Diagram (LD): Graphical representation resembling relay logic.
2. Function Block Diagram (FBD): Uses blocks to represent logic functions.
3. Structured Text (ST): High-level textual language similar to Pascal.
4. Instruction List (IL): Low-level language using mnemonics.
5. Sequential Function Chart (SFC): Represents sequential operations and states.

4. Input/Output (I/O) Processing in a PLC

1. Input Processing:
o Input devices (e.g., sensors, switches) send signals to the input module.
o The module converts physical signals into digital signals.
2. Output Processing:
o The CPU sends digital signals to the output module.
o The output module activates actuators (e.g., motors, solenoids).
3. Scan Cycle: PLC operates in a cyclic manner:
1. Input scanning.
2. Program execution.
3. Output updating.
4. Communication.

5. PLC vs. PC

Aspect PLC PC

Purpose Industrial automation and control. General-purpose computing.

Environment Rugged, operates in harsh conditions. Requires clean environments.

Real-Time Control Designed for real-time processing. Limited real-time capabilities.

I/O Handling Built-in I/O modules for industrial devices. Requires additional hardware.

Reliability High, 24/7 operation. Moderate.

6. PLC vs. Relay

Aspect PLC Relay Logic

Programmable for multiple

Flexibility Fixed, requires rewiring for changes.
applications.

Complexity Becomes cumbersome with

Handles complex operations easily.
Handling complexity.

Space Requirement Compact design. Requires more space.

Diagnostics Easy troubleshooting with software. Manual troubleshooting.

Cost High initial cost, but efficient. Low initial cost, high maintenance.

7. Opto-Isolators in PLC and Their Significance

1. Definition:
o An opto-isolator (opto-coupler) is an electronic component that transfers electrical
signals between two isolated circuits using light.
o It consists of an LED and a photodetector enclosed in a single package.
2. Significance in PLC:
o Electrical Isolation: Prevents electrical noise or high voltages from damaging the PLC.
o Signal Integrity: Ensures that signals are transmitted without distortion.
o Safety: Protects PLC components and operators from electrical hazards.
3. Applications:
o I/O modules for isolating sensors and actuators.
o Communication modules for interfacing with external devices.