Physics EOY Notes

Work, energy and machines.

 Work done (J) = Force (N) * Distance Moved (M)

 When a force moves of deforms an object, the energy is transferred in stores.
 The amount depends on the size of the force and the distance the object has moved from the original form. (Displacement)

SIMPLE MACHINES

 Make it easier to lift and turn objects, reduces force needed to do a job/ can increase the distance that something moves when a force is applied.

FRICTION AND WHEEL AXES

 When a heavy load is placed onto wheels and pushed, the rolling wheels largely reduce friction. Less friction = less force needed

LEVERS

 Forces can move objects by moving them around a pivot point.

PULLEYS

 Used to lift or lower heavy objects. Used to change direction of a force Pulleys make it easier to use your weight but the input and output forces stay the same. A
pulley consists of a wheel on a fixed axle, with a groove along the edges to guide a rope or cable. Load = weight of the object, effort = amount of force required to
lift or move an object. When you add more wheels, you create a lifting machine, increasing the mechanical advantage as it becomes easy to lift. A small force
acting over a big distance produces a big force, and the big force can only move a small distance.

Energy and temperature

 Heat contains thermal energy. The more the particles move, the faster = the object has more heat. Temperature is a measurement of how hot/cold an object is and
can be measured using a thermometer, using degrees Celsius.

FACTORS THAT IMPACT THERMAL ENERGY –

1. Volume of water (number of particles in a liquid)

2. Substance (properties like melting points and boiling points will mean it can have a different thermal energy.

EQUILIBRIUM

When hot objects cool down, the energy dissipates. The temperature reduces and eventually both objects will be the same temperature. How quickly the temperature is
transferred depends on the temperature difference.

What happens when you heat things up?

If you heat a solid the particles will vibrate more, and if you heat a liquid or gas the particles move faster and vibrate more. Individual particles in a solid, liquid or gas
don’t get hotter.

Temperature = degrees Celsius

Thermal energy = joules

Energy transfer – conduction and convention.

Energy can only be transferred via a solid by the process of conduction. For an example, if it is extremely hot and you can see the air ‘moving’, this is the particles
uncontrollably vibrating and not being able to stop. Energy does not transfer easily through insulators; this is because energy can only be transferred slowly amongst the
particles in a fixed position.

Liquids are poor thermal conductors. Diver’s wear wet suits which use a thin layer of water against their skin to keep them warm. Gasses are also poor thermal
conductors; the particles are further apart that the particles in a solid and makes it harder for energy to pass on.

The water at the bottom of a heated pot rises, then cools down, becoming heavier, making it fall to the bottom to repeat the process.

Energy transfer – radiation

What is radiation?

Infrared radiation refers to anything that emits thermal radiation or heat. Infrared travels in straight directions, travelling in waves. E.g., the sun emits radiation, both
light and infrared. You need particles for energy transformation to occur via convention and conduction, and since space is a vacuum, there are no particles, however
they are not needed for radiation.

Emitting Infrared

The type of radiation that they emit depends on their temperature. How much radiation they emit per second depends on the type of surface. Infrared can be transferred,
transmitted, absorbed, or reflected.

Absorbing infrared

A thermal imaging camera absorbs infrared and produces an image. The colours they show are false. The camera works out which areas are hotter and shows them as
redder in the image. Dark colours can absorb infrared while lighter or shin surfaces reflect it.

Magnets and magnetic fields.

Magnetic force
Non-Contact force.

is Stronger the closer you are to the magnet.

Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

permanent magnets have their own magnetic field.

The Earth has a north and south pole. They are useful when navigating a planet needle in a compass are always attracted to the north Pole.

Electromagnets

A wire with an electric current going through it has a magnetic field around it.

You can investigate a field with a plotting compass. The field lines are in circles.

You can create a circular loop of wire and pass a current through it.

The magnetic field lines, at the centre of the loop are straight.

The magnetic field around a single loop is not very strong.

You can wind lots of loops together called solenoid.

If a current flows through it, you have an electromagnet.

Electromagnet usually have a magnetic material in the centre of the coil called a core. This makes the electromagnet much stronger.

Most cords are made of iron.

Iron is easy to magnetise but loses its magnetism easily.

Steel is very hard to magnetise but keeps its magnetism if you had a steel core in an electromagnet you can’t turn it off because the steel would be magnetic.

How can I make an electromagnet stronger?

One the number of tons or loops in the coil turns of the wire make an electromagnet stronger.

The current flowing in the wire.

more current flowing in the wire will make a stronger electromagnet. The type of core this also affects the electromagnet because using a magnetic material in the core
will make a stronger electromagnet the strength of a magnetic field around an electromagnet increase.

Using electromagnets

An x-ray machine can be very dangerous. It uses a high potential difference, a relay. a relay uses a small current in one circuit to operate a switch in another. When it is
closed the coil becomes an electromagnet. The two irons in pieces are magnetised they attract one another and turn on the x-ray machine.

How do you start a car?

A car battery produces a large current that can be very dangerous. The driver switches on the circuit in the battery to start the car. They do this safely via an
electromagnet switch.

How do you lift a car?

The iron and steel of an electromagnet and a battery attracted to one another and can be released when turned off.

Moving and spinning.

We have motors everywhere in electrical appliances in our homes like a microwave. The coil becomes an electromagnet and the forces between the coil and the
permanent magnet make the coil spin around.

forces

when an object is moving there are almost always forces which act against it unless it is a vacuum like space these are fictional forces and act in the opposite direction
to the movement fictional forces make it more difficult for objects to move friction always tries to slow down moving object it opposes motion.

The size of the force depends on the force pushing the two sides together under the state of surfaces in contact.

It is a contact force without friction bikes and cars would not be able to accelerate turn on or break the friction can cause metal to wear away in mechanical things like a
bike gears.

Air resistance.

Drag is the force which acts against the movement of an object when it moves through a fluid.

The faster the object moves, the more drag it experiences. When the fluid is air, the drag is usually described as air resistance.

An object will keep moving at a steady speed in the same direction or stay still unless a resultant force act.

So, if friction or drag forces are acting, you need to apply or force to cancel them out, not to keep an object moving. The resultant force of an object moving with a
steady speed in the same direction is zero. the object is in equilibrium.
Elastic potential.

When a force like compression stretching or elongation is applied to an object it may cause the object to change shape or deform Force pulls on an object so that it
extends it under tension. The greater the force the more it extends.

What happens when you stretch an object when an object is stretched it stores elastic potential energy? Some objects are better storing this energy than others.

Extension length = stretch length - original length

Bungee ropes springs and lift cables all stretch when you exert a force on them. The amount they stretch is called extension. If you double the force on the spring, the
extension will double. any object, thus, behaves like a spring “if you double the force on a spring the extension will double” observes Hooke’s law.

Moments

What is a moment?

Forces that act on objects have a fixed point such as the hinge of a door or a seesaw may make the object rotate. we called the turning effects of the force moment. The
moment depends on the force being applied and how far it is from the pivot. the fixed point is called the pivot or fulcrum.

There are two ways to increase a moment:

Increase the distance from the force of the pivot. If the same force is applied over a larger distance, a larger movement is produced.

Applied the force at the end or use a longer spanner if a greater force is applied over the same distance, a larger movement is also produced.

The law of moments when an object is an equilibrium the sum of the clockwise is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moment.

Moment (NM) = Force (N) x Distance from pivot (M)

Fluid pressure (N/M2) = Force N/ Area

waves

How does sound travel?

An object makes sound by vibrating.

Transverse waves.

The wave travels away from the source and the direction of the wave is at a right angle to the movement of the source.

In transverse waves the coils do not travel uncontrollably each coil of the slinky vibrates up and down

Some examples are water waves, electromagnetic waves, light waves.

longitude waves.

The direction of the wave is parallel to the movement of the source.

how does sound transfer energy? A wave carries energy information from a place to another. The vibrating makes the air molecules vibrate forwards and backwards in
the direction of movement of the soundwave. this produces compressions and rare factions.

Compression is when the wavelengths are close together and rarefaction is when the wavelengths are spread apart.

Quicker sounds have smaller amplitude.

Frequency is the number of waves produced in a second.

Loud sounds have large amplitude and high frequencies however low sounds are the opposite.

Making and detecting soundwaves.

you can make sound on the microphone and detect it with the loudspeaker a microphone converts changes in air pressure to a changing potential difference.
Loudspeaker converts a changing potential to changes in air pressure when a singer sings into a microphone. The sound waves hit a flexible plate called the diaphragm
the diaphragm vibrates and produces a change in potential difference. Loudspeakers convert the changing potential difference back into sound when they vibrate
soundwaves with the frequency above 20,000 Hz are called ultrasound can only have frequencies up to 20 Hz but use ultrasound to find food doctors use ultrasound to
create images when sound or ultrasound interacts with solids or liquids it makes the particles in the materials vibrate. this means you can use ultrasound to shake dust
from objects ultrasound warms muscular and ligaments helping them heal faster when ultrasound interacts with liquids it can make the molecule move faster meaning
the liquids get warmer.

Ultrasound in sonar

Sona is a technology used in ships transmitters under the ships. Send a beam of ultrasound travels through the water and reflects of the seabed. The receiver detects the
reflection, and the receivers use the time taken for the reflection to calculate the depth of the water.

Uses of ultrasound.
In a pregnancy, a transducer emitting ultrasound send high frequency sound waves and receives the echoing waves.

The echoing waves are picked up by the transducer and relayed to the machine which calculates the distance from the transducer to the tissue or organ using the speed
of sound in the tissue.

The ultrasound transducer emits soundwaves the soundwaves bounce off the baby like an echo. The echo is then detected by the transducer. The transducer sends the
information to a computer which makes it into a grey image.

Radiation and energy.

The electromagnet spectrum is a is continuous, but we separate it into different bands of frequencies. Visible light has arranged a frequency you have seen this when
you split white light with the prism the energy of a wave depends on its frequency the higher the frequency the more energy the wave transfers.