Evolution -ORIGIN OF LIFE
1. Abiogenesis vs Biogenesis
● Abiogenesis (Spontaneous Generation)
○ Life originated from non-living matter spontaneously.
○ Proposed by early philosophers like Aristotle.
○ Example: Maggots appearing on decaying meat.
○ Disproved by Louis Pasteur through swan-neck flask experiment.
● Biogenesis
○ Life arises only from pre-existing life.
○ Proven by Redi, Spallanzani, and Pasteur.
2. Effect of Oxygen on Origin of Life
● Primitive Earth atmosphere lacked free oxygen; was reducing (rich in H₂, CH₄, NH₃,
water vapour).
● Presence of free oxygen inhibits formation of organic molecules by oxidizing them.
● Reducing atmosphere essential for abiotic synthesis of biomolecules (supports
Oparin-Haldane theory).
3. Important Views on Origin of Life
● Panspermia Theory
○ Life came from outer space in the form of spores (Arrhenius).
○ Does not explain how life originated, only how it spread.
● Spontaneous Generation Theory
○ Life arises from non-living matter (disproved later).
● Modern Concept (Chemical Evolution Theory)
○ Life originated gradually from simple molecules → complex organic compounds
→ protobionts → first cells.
4. Oparin–Haldane Theory
● Proposed by A.I. Oparin (Russia) and J.B.S. Haldane (UK).
● Life originated through chemical evolution in a reducing atmosphere.
● Stages:
○ Formation of simple molecules (H₂, CH₄, NH₃, H₂O).
○ Formation of organic molecules (amino acids, sugars).
○ Formation of polymers (proteins, nucleic acids).
○ Formation of Protobionts (primitive cell-like structures).
● Protobionts: Pre-cellular structures that exhibit simple reproduction and metabolism but
not full life.
● Coacervates:
○ Colloidal aggregates of organic molecules surrounded by water.
○ Show growth and division-like behaviour.
○ Step towards cellular life.
5. Miller–Urey Experiment (1953)
● Setup: Closed apparatus with methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapour.
● Electric spark → simulated lightning; cooling system to condense products.
● Result: Formation of amino acids, urea, and other organic compounds.
● Conclusion: Abiotic synthesis of organic molecules is possible in primitive Earth
conditions.
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
1. Morphological Evidences
Homologous Organs
● Organs with same structure and origin but different functions.
● Indicate divergent evolution.
● Examples:
○ Animals: Forelimbs of human, whale, bat, horse.
○ Plants: Thorn of Bougainvillea, tendril of Cucurbita.
Analogous Organs
● Organs with different origin but similar function.
● Indicate convergent evolution.
● Examples:
○ Animals: Wings of bat (mammal) and butterfly (insect).
○ Plants: Sweet potato (root) and potato (stem) as storage organs.
2. Vestigial Organs
● Rudimentary organs with no apparent function in present organisms.
● Provide evidence of evolutionary ancestry.
● Examples in humans: Appendix, wisdom teeth, nictitating membrane.
3. Embryological Evidences
● Theory of Recapitulation (Biogenetic Law):
“Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny.”
○ Proposed by Ernst Haeckel.
○ Embryonic stages of an organism resemble evolutionary stages of ancestors.
● Ontogeny vs Phylogeny:
○ Ontogeny: Development of an individual organism.
○ Phylogeny: Evolutionary history of the species.
4. Palaeontological Evidence
● Definition: Study of fossils to understand evolution.
● Fossils: Preserved remains or impressions of ancient organisms in rocks.
● Provide sequence of life forms through geological time.
● Radioactive Carbon Dating (C-14 method):
○ Used to determine age of fossils (up to 50,000 years).
○ Based on half-life of Carbon-14 isotope (5730 years).
5. Geological Time Scale
● Divides Earth’s history into Eons → Eras → Periods → Epochs.
● Key Flora and Fauna:
○ Paleozoic Era: First fishes, amphibians.
○ Mesozoic Era: Age of reptiles (dinosaurs), first birds.
○ Cenozoic Era: Age of mammals, human evolution.
6. Biogeographical Evidence
● Biogeography: Study of distribution of species on Earth.
● Similar species found in different continents (e.g., Marsupials in Australia).
7. Molecular (Genetic) Evidence
● Universal Genetic Code: Same codons for amino acids in all organisms.
● Genome Similarity: DNA comparison (e.g., humans and chimpanzees share ~98%
DNA).
8. Adaptive Radiation
● Evolution of different species from a common ancestor in different ecological niches.
● Examples:
○ Darwin’s Finches (Galapagos Islands) – different beak types adapted to food
sources.
○ Marsupials (Australia) – diverse forms from a single ancestor.
KEY POINTS FOR EXAM
● Draw Miller–Urey experimental setup diagram.
● Table for Homologous vs Analogous organs with plant and animal examples.
● Geological time scale chart (major events).
● Diagrammatic representation of adaptive radiation in Darwin’s finches.
Types of Natural Selection
Quick idea (one-line)
● Stabilizing selection: favours the average phenotype and removes extremes.
● Directional selection: favours one extreme phenotype; the population mean shifts.
● Disruptive selection: favours both extremes and selects against the intermediate;
population can split into two forms.
1. Stabilizing selection
Graph shape (how to read the picture):
Start: a bell (normal) curve. After selection: the bell becomes narrower and taller around the
original mean, the middle is favoured, extremes reduced.
What happens to the population?
● Mean value: remains about the same (no shift).
● Variance: decreases (less diversity around the mean).
● Alleles: intermediate alleles rise in frequency; alleles causing extreme phenotypes are
removed.
When does it occur (conditions)?
● The environment is relatively constant with a stable optimum.
● Intermediate traits give the highest survival/reproductive success.
Biological examples:
● Human birth weight: infants of very low or very high birth weight have higher mortality;
intermediate birth weight (around ~7 lb) is favoured.
● Clutch size in birds: too few eggs reduces reproductive output; too many reduces
survival of chicks — an intermediate clutch size is selected.
Evolutionary significance:
Maintains a well-adapted population and reduces harmful extremes.
2. Directional (progressive) selection
Graph shape:
Start: bell curve. After selection: the peak shifts to one side (toward the favoured extreme).
Over time the whole distribution moves in that direction.
What happens to the population?
● Mean value: changes (shifts toward one extreme).
● Variance: might increase initially, then may decrease as the extreme becomes common.
● Alleles: alleles producing the favoured extreme increase in frequency and can become
fixed.
When does it occur (conditions)?
● Changing environment or a new selection pressure (new predator, climate change,
new food source, pesticides).
● The single extreme phenotype has higher fitness than the rest.
Biological examples:
● Industrial melanism (peppered moth): dark (melanic) forms became common in
polluted areas because they were better camouflaged.
● DDT / antibiotic resistance: repeated use of a toxin selects for resistant individuals;
population shifts to resistance.
● Changes in beak size of birds when seed size availability changes (Darwin’s finches).
Evolutionary significance:
Drives adaptation to new conditions and can lead to directional change or even speciation if
sustained.
3. Disruptive (diversifying) selection
Graph shape:
Start: bell curve. After selection: the intermediate/narrow middle is selected against, producing
two peaks at both extremes (a bimodal distribution).
What happens to the population?
● Mean value: may remain similar (because extremes balance), but variance increases
(more diversity).
● Alleles: alleles for extremes increase; alleles producing intermediate phenotypes
decrease.
● If combined with assortative mating (like mates preferring the same phenotype), this
can lead to speciation (two separate populations).
When does it occur (conditions)?
● Heterogeneous or patchy environment where two (or more) different niches exist.
● If resources favor two different trait values (e.g., small seeds and large seeds), extreme
phenotypes each gain advantage.
Biological examples:
● Birds feeding on two very different seed sizes: small-beaked and large-beaked birds
succeed; medium beaks do poorly.
● Galápagos finches / African seedcrackers (classic examples of niche-based
divergence).
● Human example: disruptive sexual selection can produce sexual dimorphism (males and
females evolving very different traits) — but this is more complex.
Evolutionary significance:
Promotes diversity and can be an early step toward speciation if reproductive isolation
follows.
Side-by-side comparison (short)
● Mean: stabilizing = same; directional = shifts; disruptive = same (but distribution
changes).
● Variance: stabilizing ↓ ; directional may ↑ then ↓ ; disruptive ↑.
● Environment: stabilizing = constant; directional = changing; disruptive =
variable/heterogeneous.
● Long-term result: stabilizing = maintenance of status quo; directional =
adaptation/change; disruptive = possible branching/speciation.
How to draw/label these graphs for exams
1. Draw original normal distribution (label “before selection”).
2. For stabilizing: draw a taller, narrower curve centered at same mean (label “after —
extremes removed”).
3. For directional: draw the new peak shifted left or right (label “after — mean shifts”).
4. For disruptive: draw two peaks separated with a trough in the middle (label “after —
intermediates selected against”).
Always label x-axis = phenotype (trait value), y-axis = number of individuals (or frequency).
Quick memory aid
● Stabilizing = Stays the same (mean stays).
● Directional = Drift toward one side.
● Disruptive = Divide into two.
