EEE 498/598

Overview of Electrical
Engineering
Lecture 9: Faraday’s Law Of
Electromagnetic Induction;
Displacement Current; Complex
Permittivity and Permeability
1
 Lecture 9 Objectives
 To study Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction; displacement
current; and complex permittivity and
permeability.

Lecture 9
2
 Fundamental Laws of
Electrostatics
 Integral form  Differential form

 E  dl  0
C
 E  0
  D  qev
 D  d s   qev dv
S V

D E
Lecture 9
3
 Fundamental Laws of
Magnetostatics
 Integral form  Differential form

 H  dl   J  d s
C S
 H  J
B  0
 Bds  0
S

B  H

Lecture 9
4
Electrostatic, Magnetostatic, and
Electromagnetostatic Fields
 In the static case (no time variation), the electric
field (specified by E and D) and the magnetic
field (specified by B and H) are described by
separate and independent sets of equations.
 In a conducting medium, both electrostatic and
magnetostatic fields can exist, and are coupled
through the Ohm’s law (J = E). Such a
situation is called electromagnetostatic.

Lecture 9
5
 Electromagnetostatic Fields
 In an electromagnetostatic field, the electric
field is completely determined by the stationary
charges present in the system, and the magnetic
field is completely determined by the current.
 The magnetic field does not enter into the
calculation of the electric field, nor does the
electric field enter into the calculation of the
magnetic field.

Lecture 9
6
 The Three Experimental Pillars
of Electromagnetics
 Electric charges attract/repel each other as
described by Coulomb’s law.
 Current-carrying wires attract/repel each other
as described by Ampere’s law of force.
 Magnetic fields that change with time induce
electromotive force as described by Faraday’s
law.

Lecture 9
7
 Faraday’s Experiment

toroidal iron
core
switch compass

battery

secondary
primary
coil
coil

Lecture 9
8
 Faraday’s Experiment (Cont’d)
 Upon closing the switch, current begins to
flow in the primary coil.
 A momentary deflection of the compass needle
indicates a brief surge of current flowing in the
secondary coil.
 The compass needle quickly settles back to
zero.
 Upon opening the switch, another brief
deflection of the compass needle is observed.
Lecture 9
9
 Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction
 “The electromotive force induced around a
closed loop C is equal to the time rate of
decrease of the magnetic flux linking the
loop.”

d S
Vind 
dt C

Lecture 9
10
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction (Cont’d)
   Bds
S • S is any surface
bounded by C
Vind   E  d l
C

d integral form
C E  d l   dt S B  d s of Faraday’s
law

Lecture 9
11
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)
Stokes’s theorem

 E  dl    E  d s
C S

d B
  B  d s   ds
dt S S
t
assuming a stationary surface S

Lecture 9
12
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)
 Since the above must hold for any S, we have

differential form
B of Faraday’s law
 E   (assuming a
t stationary frame
of reference)

Lecture 9
13
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)
 Faraday’s law states that a changing
magnetic field induces an electric field.
 The induced electric field is non-
conservative.

Lecture 9
14
 Lenz’s Law
 “The sense of the emf induced by the time-
varying magnetic flux is such that any current it
produces tends to set up a magnetic field that
opposes the change in the original magnetic
field.”
 Lenz’s law is a consequence of conservation of
energy.
 Lenz’s law explains the minus sign in Faraday’s
law.
Lecture 9
15
 Faraday’s Law
 “The electromotive force induced around a
closed loop C is equal to the time rate of
decrease of the magnetic flux linking the
loop.”
d
Vind 
dt
 For a coil of N tightly wound turns
d
Vind  N
dt Lecture 9
16
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)

   Bds S
S
C

• S is any surface
Vind   E  d l bounded by C
C

Lecture 9
17
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)
 Faraday’s law applies to situations where
 (1) the B-field is a function of time
 (2) ds is a function of time

 (3) B and ds are functions of time

Lecture 9
18
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)
 The induced emf around a circuit can be
separated into two terms:
 (1) due to the time-rate of change of the B-
field (transformer emf)
 (2) due to the motion of the circuit
(motional emf)

Lecture 9
19
 Faraday’s Law (Cont’d)
d
Vind    Bds
dt S
B
  ds    v  B   d l
S
t C

transformer emf
motional emf

Lecture 9
20
 Moving Conductor in a Static
Magnetic Field
 Consider a conducting bar moving with
velocity v in a magnetostatic field:
2 • The magnetic force on an
- electron in the conducting
bar is given by
B
v
F m  ev  B
+
1
Lecture 9
21
Moving Conductor in a Static
Magnetic Field (Cont’d)
 Electrons are pulled
toward end 2. End 2
2
becomes negatively
- charged and end 1
B becomes + charged.
v  An electrostatic force
of attraction is
+ established between
1
the two ends of the
bar.

Lecture 9
22
 Moving Conductor in a Static
Magnetic Field (Cont’d)
 The electrostatic force on an electron
due to the induced electrostatic field is
given by F e  e E
 The migration of electrons stops
(equilibrium is established) when
F e  F m  E  v  B

Lecture 9
23
 Moving Conductor in a Static
Magnetic Field (Cont’d)
 A motional (or “flux cutting”) emf is
produced given by

1
Vind    v  B   d l
2

Lecture 9
24
 Electric Field in Terms of
Potential Functions
 Electrostatics:

  E  0  E  
scalar electric potential

Lecture 9
25
 Electric Field in Terms of
Potential Functions (Cont’d)
 Electrodynamics:
B   A
B 
 E        A
t t
 A A
 E  0  E  
 t  t
Lecture 9
26
 Electric Field in Terms of
Potential Functions (Cont’d)
 Electrodynamics:
vector
magnetic
A
E    potential
t
scalar • both of these
electric potentials are now
potential functions of time.

Lecture 9
27
 Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation
 The differential form of Ampere’s law in
the static case is
 H  J
 The continuity equation is
qev
 J  0
t

Lecture 9
28
 Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation (Cont’d)
 In the time-varying case, Ampere’s law in
the above form is inconsistent with the
continuity equation

  J      H   0

Lecture 9
29
 Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation (Cont’d)
 To resolve this inconsistency, Maxwell
modified Ampere’s law to read

D
 H  J c 
t

conduction displacement
current density current density

Lecture 9
30
 Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation (Cont’d)
 The new form of Ampere’s law is
consistent with the continuity equation as
well as with the differential form of
Gauss’s law

  J c     D       H   0
t
qev

Lecture 9
31
 Displacement Current
 Ampere’s law can be written as

 H  J c  J d

where
D
Jd   displacement current density (A/m 2 )
t

Lecture 9
32
Displacement Current (Cont’d)
 Displacement current is the type of current
that flows between the plates of a capacitor.
 Displacement current is the mechanism
which allows electromagnetic waves to
propagate in a non-conducting medium.
 Displacement current is a consequence of
the three experimental pillars of
electromagnetics.

Lecture 9
33
 Displacement Current in a
Capacitor
 Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with plates of area
A separated by a dielectric of permittivity  and
thickness d and connected to an ac generator:

z
A ic +
z=d
 id v (t )  V0 cos t
z=0
-
Lecture 9
34
 Displacement Current in a
Capacitor (Cont’d)
 The electric field and displacement
flux density in the capacitor is given by
v (t ) V0
E  aˆ z  aˆ z cos  t • assume
d d fringing is
V negligible
D   E   aˆ z 0 cos  t
d
 The displacement current density is
given by D  V
J  d  aˆ sin  t
z
0
t d

Lecture 9
35
 Displacement Current in a
Capacitor (Cont’d)
 The displacement current is given by

A
id   J d  d s   J d A   V0 sin t
S
d
dv
  CV0 sin t  C  ic conduction
dt
current in
wire

Lecture 9
36
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio
 Consider a conducting medium characterized
by conductivity  and permittivity .
 The conduction current density is given by
Jc  E
 The displacement current density is given by
E
Jd 
t

Lecture 9
37
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio (Cont’d)
 Assume that the electric field is a
sinusoidal function of time:
E  E0 cos t
 Then,
J c  E0 cos t
J d  E0 sin t

Lecture 9
38
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio (Cont’d)
 We have
Jc max
 E0
Jd max
 E0

 Therefore
J c max 

Jd max


Lecture 9
39
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio (Cont’d)
 The value of the quantity  at a specified
frequency determines the properties of the
medium at that given frequency.
 In a metallic conductor, the displacement
current is negligible below optical frequencies.
 In free space (or other perfect dielectric), the
conduction current is zero and only
displacement current can exist.

Lecture 9
40
Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio (Cont’d) Humid Soil (er = 30, s = 10 -2 S/m)
6
10

5
10

4
10

10
3 good
10
2 conductor
1
10

 10
0

 10
-1

-2
10

-3
10

-4
good insulator
10
0 2 4 6 8 10
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Lecture 9
41
 Complex Permittivity
 In a good insulator, the conduction current (due to
non-zero ) is usually negligible.
 However, at high frequencies, the rapidly varying
electric field has to do work against molecular
forces in alternately polarizing the bound
electrons.
 The result is that P is not necessarily in phase with
E, and the electric susceptibility, and hence the
dielectric constant, are complex.

Lecture 9
42
 Complex Permittivity (Cont’d)
 The complex dielectric constant can be
written as

 c    j 
 Substituting the complex dielectric constant
into the differential frequency-domain form of
Ampere’s law, we have

  H   E  j  E    E

Lecture 9
43
Complex Permittivity (Cont’d)
 Thus, the imaginary part of the complex permittivity leads to a
volume current density term that is in phase with the electric field,
as if the material had an effective conductivity given by
 The power dissipated per unit volume in the medium is given by

 eff     

2

 eff E  E   E 2 2

Lecture 9
44
 Complex Permittivity (Cont’d)
 The term E2 is the basis for microwave
heating of dielectric materials.
 Often in dielectric materials, we do not
distinguish between  and , and lump them
together in  as
• The value of eff is
    eff often determined by
measurements.

Lecture 9
45
 Complex Permittivity (Cont’d)
 In general, both  and  depend on frequency,
exhibiting resonance characteristics at several
frequencies.

2.5 1

Imag Part of Dielectric Constant

0.9

2 0.8

0.7

1.5 0.6

0.5

1 0.4

0.3

0.5 0.2

0.1

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Normalized Frequency Normalized Frequency

Lecture 9
46
 Complex Permittivity (Cont’d)
 In tabulating the dielectric properties of
materials, it is customary to specify the real part
of the dielectric constant ( / 0) and the loss
tangent (tan) defined as

 
tan  

Lecture 9
47
 Complex Permeability
 Like the electric field, the magnetic field
encounters molecular forces which require
work to overcome in magnetizing the material.
 In analogy with permittivity, the permeability
can also be complex

 c     j 

Lecture 9
48
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form for
Time-Harmonic Fields in Simple Medium

  E   j   m  H  K i
  H   j   e  E  J i
qev
E 

qmv
H 

Lecture 9
49
 Maxwell’s Curl Equations for Time-
Harmonic Fields in Simple Medium Using
Complex Permittivity and Permeability
complex
permeability

  E   j H  K i
  H  j E  J i
complex
permittivity

Lecture 9
50